OR/14/069 Study area

Bricker, S H, Yadav, S K, MacDonald, A M, Satyal, Y, Dixit, A, and Bell, R. 2014. Groundwater resilience Nepal: preliminary findings from a case study in the Middle Hills. British Geological Survey Internal Report, OR/14/069.

Within this section we present an overview of the geographical and climatic setting of Nepal and a description of the geography of the Middle Hills. The final sections provide a more detailed account of Myagdi VDC and Ramche VDC within which the two study catchments are located. Two contrasting sub-catchments of the Kali Gandaki river basin were selected to represent some of the main hydrological, physiographical and socio-economic settings present within the middle hills. The first study catchment comprises the villages of Nangi and Ramche in Ramche VDC; lying at elevations of 2000–3000 m, this catchment relies on snowmelt contributions in addition to monsoon rain. The dominant land use type is community forest with most people employed in subsistence terraced farming. The second study catchment is situated in Madan Pokhara within Myagdi VDC. With elevations below 1000 m this catchment is both warmer and drier than Ramche VDC, with lower monsoon rainfall totals but with expanding commercial agriculture.

Nepal

Topography

Nepal is located between the Ganga plains and the high Himalayan mountains. The country is characterised by a diverse topographical and physiographical landscape with elevations of less than 100 m above sea level (asl) in the Terai in the south of the Nepal through to 8848 m asl in the high Himalayas in the north (NPC, 2010). The contrast in topography gives rise to different climatic regions ranging from summer tropical heat and humid conditions in the lowlands to alpine winters in the northern mountains. The country is divided into five major physiographic regions that extend across the length of Nepal: the Terai, the Siwalik Hills, the Middle Mountains, the High Mountains and the High Himalayas (Figure 1, Table 2).

Figure 1    Physiographic regions of Nepal, derived from Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) topographic data USGS (2004).

Table 2    Description of the physiographic regions in Nepal

Region	Elevations	Area	Geographic setting
Terai	<900 m	33%	The Terai region lies in the southernmost part of country. Land slopes gently southward and supports most of the country’s agriculture.
Siwalik zone	900–1200 m	8%	The Siwalik zone is located south of the middle mountain. It forms the first and lowermost ridges of the Himalayan Mountain system with cultivated valleys and plains.
Middle Hills	1200–3000 m	30%	The Middle Mountain area comprises the country’s central belt. This region is composed of networks of ridges and incised valleys.
High Mountains	3000–5000 m	20%	The High Mountains are characterised by a series of ridges and mountain tops which are dissected by deep valleys and gorges incised to elevations around 1000 m asl.
High Himalayas	>5000 m	9%	The High Himalaya form Nepal’s highest peaks and is largely covered by snow and ice throughout the year.

Climate

Nepal has a complex subtropical climate driven by the contrasting terrain and regional weather systems. The result is high temperature gradients across the country: from the hot plains to the cold mountains (Figure 2). Two climatic regimes dominate across the Himalayas — the westerlies, disturbances of which give rise to winter precipitation (Collins et al., 2013) and the monsoon system, with the latter most prominent in Nepal (Bookhagen and Burbank, 2010). The temperature gradient between the warm land (Tibetan Plateau) and cooler ocean is one of the main driving forces for the monsoon (Bookhagen and Burbank, 2010).

Figure 2    Long-term average (LTA) temperature for the period 1950–2000 derived from CRU data (Jones and Harris, 2013). The study catchments on Myagdi and Palpa districts are indicated by white circles.

Long term average (LTA) annual precipitation varies spatially across Nepal from approximately 500 mm to 2200 mm (Figure 3). The majority of Nepal’s total precipitation occurs during the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) (June–September), the source of precipitation coming from the Bay of Bengal with monsoon vortices moving to the north and northwest (Bookhagen and Burbank 2010). The south and east of Nepal generally receives more than 80% of its precipitation during the monsoon while the north and west of Nepal receives 55–80% (Shrestha 2000). Inter-annual rainfall variability is high and is thought to be linked to the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), with deficits in rainfall associated with a negative departure from the SOI (Shrestha, 2000). Variations in the intensity and duration of the ISM caused by departures from the SOI can increase annual precipitation by approximately 25–50% at elevations below 3000 m and by up to 200% in the high mountains (Andermann et al., 2012). Despite the inter-annual variability, trends in precipitation across Nepal’s Himalayan headwaters for the period 1948–1994 have been consistent, with no observed reduction in precipitation (Collins et al., 2013).

Figure 3    Long-term average (LTA) precipitation (mm) for the period 1950–2000 derived from CRU data (Jones and Harris, 2013). The study catchments on Myagdi and Palpa districts are indicated by white circles.

Hydrology

Nepal’s hydrological system is dependant not only on the ISM but also influenced by snow and glacier melt, and to a lesser extent by evapotranspiration (Andermann et al., 2012; Collins et al., 2013 ). It is estimated that glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya cover an area of more than 5000 km² and contain some 480 km³ of ice. These glaciers cover approximately 3–4% of Nepal, and are located on, or near, the crest of the Himalaya, with the bulk of the ice at altitudes generally between 4000–6000 m asl (Mool et al., 2001). The snow and glacier melt contribution to river discharge is estimated to be 14 ± 7 km³/year considering the three main catchments in Nepal (Sapta Koshi, Narayani and Karnali), which accounts for about 10% of annual river discharge (Andermann et al., 2012). Glaciers in the central Himalayas are thought to have been reducing in length and thickness from the Little Ice Age maximum extension (Collins et al., 2013).

More than 6000 rivers and rivulets, with a cumulative length of 45000 km, dissect Nepal’s landscape (WECS/DHMN 1996). The rivers rise from the lower Himalayas and flow to the Ganga plains in the south through a dense river network. These rivers cover around 3950 km² of the land surface (Khanal, 2001) with drainage density of about 0.3 km/km². About 1000 of the rivers are more than 11 km in length and as many as 100 are longer than 160 km. River flows in Nepal provide a vital source of water for hydropower, irrigation and water supply (Collins et al., 2013).

Nepal’s river network largely extends across three main river catchments (Koshi, Narayani and Karnali). These catchments extend from the Tibetan Plateau to the lesser Himalayas with rivers sourced from glaciers, snow-fed glacial lakes and snow packs of the high Himalaya. These rivers drain about 78% of mountains section of Nepal and about 70% of the country (Bhusal, 2005). Some authors (Zollinger, 1979; WECS, 2011) sub-divide these river basins, distinguishing between those rivers and tributaries that rise from the glaciated portion of the catchment and those rivers which source from the Mahabharat range below the snow line. The significant contribution of monsoon rainfall to river flows across the expansive lower slopes of the Middle Hills is recognised (Collins et al., 2013). The groundwater storage and contribution to river flows across the Himalayan hills is not accounted for in Nepal’s hydrological budget (e.g. Bookhagen and Burbank 2010; Moiwo et al., 2011; Collins et al., 2013) though recent investigations suggest groundwater storage in the fractured basement aquifers may be significant (Andermann et al. 2012). Smaller, isolated, river catchments are present in the south of Nepal where rivers source from the Siwalik Hills in front of the Himalayan range. These rivers have a flashy response and are responsible for triggering flash floods during the monsoon. These rivers have low flows along their upper reaches during the dry season and offer little potential for generating hydropower.

The spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation varies significantly because of the contrasts in topography and is reflected in the river flows. Maximum river flows occur during July–August coinciding with the peak of the monsoon declining through to minimum flows in February–March. River flow hydrographs for the main river types in Nepal are presented in Figure 4, along with the locations of the gauging stations.

Figure 4    River flow hydrographs for the main river types in Nepal a) tributaries rising from the high mountains and Middle Hills b) main rivers downstream of tributary confluences c) small rivers rising from the Siwalik Hills. Gauging station numbers and locations are indicated. River flow data provided by Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, Nepal. Elevation data USGS (2004) Shuttle Radar Topography Mission.

Some of the rivers pre-date the uplift of the main Himalayan ranges and have kept pace with the rate of uplift cutting through the ranges to form deeply incised valleys. In the mountainous and Middle Hill regions the lower permeability geology and steep slopes tend to promote rapid run-off resulting in a dense network of small, steep streams that drain into major tributaries. In contrast, in the Siwalik region, the less rugged terrain and more permeable geology promotes groundwater recharge of the aquifers in the Terai.

Geology

Nepal is located in the central part of the Himalayan arc, the geology is relatively young and tectonically active and the mountain range is characterized by high mountains dissected by deep river valleys undergoing constant landscape evolution (Figures 5 and 6).

Figure 5    Geomorphological setting within Nepal. From Dahal (2010).

Figure 6    Geomorphological division of Nepal, modified from Hagen, T (1998).

Nepal can be divided into five tectonic zones from north to south: the Tibetan-Tethys Himalayan Zone comprising low-grade Paleozoic-Mesozoic Tethyan Sediments, Higher Himalayan Zone formed of high-grade metamorphic gneisses and migmatites, Lesser Himalayan Zone comprising low-grade Proterozoic sediments (Mahabharat Range and mid valleys), Siwalik Zone composed of mudstone and sandstone sediments, and the Terai Zone formed of unconsolidated alluvial sediments. These are broadly equivalent to the five major physiographic regions (Table 2). Each of the geological zones is characterized by its own structure and geological history and separated from each other by thrust faults. The southernmost fault, the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) separates the Siwalik Zone from the Gangetic Plains. The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) separates the Lesser Himalayan Zone from Siwalik. The Main Central Thrust (MCT) separates the Higher Himalayan Zone from the Lesser Himalayan Zone. The South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS) marks the boundary between the Higher Himalayan Zone and the overlying sedimentary sequence of the Tibetan-Tethys Himalayan Zone (Figure 6).

Owing to the rugged topography, complex geological settings, soft soil cover, high intensity rainfall during monsoon periods and frequent earthquakes, landslides, debris flows, soil erosion, and other mass wasting processes are common natural hazards in Nepal (Bartlett et al., 2010).

Middle hills

The Middle Hills of Nepal, known as the Lesser Himalayas occupy 65% of the land area of Nepal (Gautam, 1993). Its average altitude is 2000 m asl with elevations ranging from 600–3500 m asl (Nepal Biodiversity Strategy, 2002). Topographically the region shows extreme rugged terrain with very steep slopes and deeply incised valleys. The Middle Hills exhibit a more mature landscape compared to other regions at lower altitudes with wide valleys. A large network of rivers and streams drain the Middle Hills, these rivers carry high sediment loads with evidence of deposition along many reaches. Due to the presence of Mahabharat Range in the south which forms a topographic high, most rivers flowing across the Middle Hills are deflected to follow a east-west oriented course collecting discharge from many north-south flowing tributaries. Extensive terraces have formed along rivers in the Middle Hills where the course of the river occupies a low gradient. A few rivers such as Sapta Kosi in east Nepal, the Narayani in central Nepal, and the Karnali in far-western Nepal, rise from the high Himalayas and flow though this Middle Hills forming some of the deepest gorges in the world. Geologically, this region is made up from unfossiliferous sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks such as shale, sandstone, limestone, dolomite, slate, phyllite, schist, and quartz. The rocks are of Precambian (as old as 1800 million years) to Eocene (about 40 million years) in age (Upreti, undated). The rocks in this region are highly folded and faulted, with a complex geological structure.

Figure 7    Typical landscape of Nepal's middle hills © ISET 2014.

The climate varies from subtropical at lower elevations and in the valley floors through to warm temperate conditions at higher elevations and on mountain ridges. During summer the temperature reaches an average of 32°C. Winters are cold and temperatures sometimes reaches -1°C (Shrestha et al., 1999).

Annual precipitation in the Middle Hills varies from less than 1000 mm in the east and west extremities of Nepal’s Middle Hills to more than 3500 mm in the central Middle Hills (Shrestha, 2000). The Middle Hills typically receive 70–80% of precipitation during the monsoon season. Rivers in the west, which receive less rainfall, are more dependent on snow-melt from the higher Himalayas. The Middle Hills and mountain regions are believed to have a lower groundwater potential than the main groundwater basins present in the Terai and the mid-hill valleys, such as Kathmandu and the Dang, where groundwater is used extensively for agriculture, industry and water supply. Groundwater resources in the Middle Hills have not been systematically investigated and very few estimates of the groundwater resource exist. However, investigations by Kansakar (2002) suggest the annual groundwater recharge in Nepal’s mid-hills is 1723 million cubic metres and Andermann et al. (2012)conclude that groundwater storage within the fractured basement aquifers of the Middle Hills significantly influences river discharge. Groundwater discharge occurs in the form of springs and seepages and plays a critical role in the lives of the people in the hills. In some mountain areas it is the only source of water for drinking and irrigation.

Springs also help maintain baseflow in rivers, and sustain aquatic ecosystems. Groundwater resources are more limited because of the presence of low permeability crystalline basement and steep slopes which promote increased run-off and reduce the potential for groundwater recharge. However groundwater in the slopes of the Middle Hills is likely to occur within the weathered bedrock zone and within fractures in the underlying basement aquifers. Fluvial sand and gravel aquifers deposited within both the active and former river floodplains are also likely to store significant groundwater resources.

The majority of the population lives in the Middle Hills with very dense populations in the Kathmandu, Pokhara, Trishuli and Banepa valleys (Figure 8). Major economic activities include agriculture, tourism, trade, service and micro-enterprises. The people in this region have prospered from the growth in the tourism industry. Agriculture is intensive in this part of the country where farming occurs on terraces built into the hillslope, sometimes up to the very tops of the high hills. Forests have been severely degraded in this region and exploited for the purpose of fodder, firewood, litter and timber collection. The rate of soil erosion is a significant concern as a result of deforestation.

Figure 8    Nepal's population density with the physiographic regions overlain. Global population density data Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Columbia University and CIAT https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/gpw. Physiographic regions of Nepal, derived from Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) topographic data USGS (2004).

Nepalese agriculture in the hills and mountains is affected by soil erosion due to the steep gradients and intense monsoon rainfall, leading to reduced soil fertility and declining agricultural productivity. While it has not been possible to quantify current losses, the cumulative effects are likely to reduce annual agricultural production by several per cent in the cultivated areas of the hills and mountains (Government of Nepal, 2012).

Figure 9    Typical terrace farming on hillslopes in the middle hills © NERC 2014.

Inter-annual climate variability also affects agriculture, which is predominantly small-scale and heavily dependent on natural rainfall, leading to large annual variations in production. In addition, floods and droughts have large impacts on agriculture.

The Middle Hills embodies a vast ecosystem and diversity of species. Spotted leopard, barking deer, and Himalayan black bear are some of the common wildlife. The region is home to four hundred species of bird. In many areas of this region ecosystems have become increasingly stressed due to the dual pressures from rural and urban demands, for example, land degradation, pollution and over-exploitation of resources.

Ramche and Nangi villages, Myagdi

Location

Ramche Village Development Committee (VDC) is one of the most progressive VDCs in Myagdi district. VDCs are a local level municipality with the purpose of structuring the village community to create strong partnerships between the community and the public sector. Myagdi district is located in the Western Development Region of Nepal (Figure 10). Its altitude ranges from 792 m asl (Ratnechaur VDC) to 8167 m asl (Dhaulagiri Himal). Covering an area of 2297 km² (22 9 700 ha), Myagdi district is surrounded by Manang, Kaski and Parbat districts in the east, Baglung and Rukum districts in the west, Dolpa and Mustang districts in the north and Baglung district in the south. The district’s headquarters are in the town of Beni.

Figure 10    Map showing the location of Ramche VDC and wards.

Ramche VDC lies at the edge of the south eastern part of Myagdi district, with altitudes ranging from 950 to 3263 m asl. The VDC has Histan VDC to the north, Rakhu Bhagwati VDC and Rakhu Piple to the west. The eastern and southern part of this VDC is surrounded by Parbat district. The major vegetation found are Rhododendron, Walnut (Juglans regia), Chestnut (Castonopsis indica), Emblic myrobalan (Emblica officinslis), Chebulic myrobalan (Terminalia chebula) and Belliric Myrobalan (Terminalia bellrica) (Dixit and Khadka 2013).

Land use

Ramche has total land area of approximately 2600 ha (based on DOS, 1993). About 89% of total land cover is forested. The forest has improved in condition since community forestry was initiated and shifting cultivation was banned. About 220 ha is arable and is mostly bari land (non-irrigated agriculture land). The VDC has no khet land (irrigated terrace). Shrubs and grazing land are other forms of land use in Ramche. Table 2 shows the areas covered by each land use and percentage of its coverage.

Table 3    Land use in Ramche VDC. Source: Values derived from DOS (1993)

Land use	Area (ha)	Percentage
Agriculture land	220	8.5
Forest land	2320	89.2
Grass land	8.8	0.34
Shrub land	36	1.38
Barren land	5.2	0.2
Water body	11.7	0.45

Climate

Myagdi district has four different types of climate ranging from sub-tropical to alpine. The annual average maximum rainfall is 2960 mm and annual average minimum 407 mm. The mean annual rainfall trend of Myagdi district is presented in Figure 11. The recorded annual average maximum temperature is 36°C and annual average minimum temperature is 3°C. The lower parts of Ramche VDC have a warm temperate climate, while the upper hills experience a cool temperate climate. There are three distinct seasons i) cool winters with both snowfall and rainfall ii) pre-monsoon season or spring with periodic thunder showers and iii) summer monsoon season. The climate in Ramche is favourable for growing pears and citrus fruits. Seven different types of rare Rhododendron are found here.

Figure 11    Mean annual rainfall trend of Myagdi district (temperate datasets). Rainfall data Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, Government of Nepal, gauging stations 619, 621, 626, 627, 628, 629.

A rise in temperature has been observed in Myagdi and local people report an increase in pests and diseases over the years where stem borer and aphids have attacked maize plants. Potato, the major crop of Ramche, is affected by insect species locally known as Rato Dhamira, Khumara and Baiselo. Another local species, Tame is seen in barley. Elephant beetle and larvae also affect vegetable crops. Locals also report changes in planting and harvesting schedules. Warmer temperatures have however made the climate suitable for new crops and vegetables. People within Ramche have recently started planting vegetables such as tomatoes, cauliflower, cabbage and mushroom.

Anecdotally locals report increased rainfall within Myagdi, causing increased disruption to transportation affecting mobility. The impact of landslides and floods on local initiative of food production and vegetable farming as a result of increased rainfall is also a concern.

Population and literacy

Ramche VDC covers an area of approximately 2600 ha and has a total population of 1600 with 708 male and 892 female in 460 households (CBS, 2011). Ramche VDC has a literacy rate of 85.27%, with 48.5% male literacy and 51.5% female literacy (CBS, 2011). The VDC has two schools including one higher secondary school. The higher literacy rate in Ramche is also because of the availability of informal education (Proudh shikchhya) in the VDC.

Economy and livelihood

Agriculture is the major source of livelihood in almost all villages of Ramche, however, food sufficiency, when communities are able to meet consumption needs from their own production, is less than a year in the VDC. The villagers are engaged in various off-farm income generating activities to sustain their livelihoods, including services, business, armed forces and small cottage industries. Some have migrated out of the village or country to seek work opportunities. A reduction in a skilled agricultural workforce is reported to be one reason why less land is used for agriculture. Tourism is gradually growing in the VDC. Income from these off-farm sectors helps support local livelihoods.

Figure 12    Ramche VDC, with field sampling locations, river gauging stations and rain gauges shown. Elevation data USGS (2004) Shuttle Radar Topography Mission.

Figure 13    Ramche VDC with spring and stream water supply sources used for on-going discharge measurement shown.

Catchment water supply

Aul khola and Basure khola are rivers located in the southern part of Ramche VDC; Pandoor river is located in the northern belt of the VDC. These rivers are perennial, though discharge is high during the rainy season and very low during the dry season. Aul, Basure and Pandoor are tributaries of the Kaligandaki river. The spring and stream water supply sources used for on-going discharge measurement are shown in Figure 14 and listed in Table 3.

In total 19 permanent water sources were recorded in the VDC. Of these, 14 were recorded in Nangi village (Wards 1, 2 and 5) and Ramche village (wards 3 and 4). Citeni spring in Ramche, Rato Jhapra spring and Seto Kharsu spring in Nangi are the major sources used for drinking, cooking and sanitation (Dixit et al. 2012 ). Nangi’s drinking water supply system was completed in 2006 using Rato Jhapra (Dixit et al. 2012). Most of the water sources lie in the dense forest areas.

Seven springs (Table 4) were selected for sampling in Ramche VDC, these sites incorporate the major sources used for domestic water supply (Citeni, Rato Jhapra and Seto Kharsu) in addition to other water sources used in the villages. A description of these seven springs follows, including preliminary flows and water usage data collected through the community surveys.

Figure 14    Ramche VDC with spring sources and sampling points indicated. Image © 2014 CNES/Astrium. Image © 2014 DigitalGlobe.

Table 4    List of studied water sources in Ramche VDC

SN	Name	Location in VDC	Type
R.9	Sanu Gaun Pandehra	Ramche village, Ramche	Perennial
R.11	Citeni Mul	Ramche village, Ramche	Perennial
R.10	Thulo Gaun Pandhera	Ramche village, Ramche	Perennial
N.1	Tallo Pandhera	Nangi, Ramche	Perennial
N.2	Seto Dhunga	Nangi, Ramche	Perennial
N.3	Rato Jhapra	Nangi, Ramche	Perennial
N.4	Seto Kharsu	Nangi, Ramche	Perennial

Rato Jhapara (Nangi)
This water source is located at 2559 m asl. It is a perennial spring source in Nangi located on black clay and red mixed soil. The spring source faces the north-east slope. The upper part of the source is covered by rhododendron and mixed needle type of forest at the lower part. The spring source is located at an altitude of 2700 m asl. Geographically the area is located at the eastern part of Ramche VDC. This source supplies drinking water to 36 households and a school, hostel and community lodge. The water is used primarily for domestic, livestock and irrigation purposes and additionally used to support a paper-making and jam-making business. Locals report that water usage over the last few years has remained the same. The flow is insufficient during the dry season. Spring flow in the post-monsoon season (Sept–13) was measured at 4.4 litres per second (l/s) using a bucket gauge; by pre-monsoon season (April–14) the flow had reduced to approximately 0.5–1 l/s.

Seto Khasru (Nangi)
This spring source is located at 2386 m asl. It is another perennial spring source in Nangi located on the black clay and red mixed gravel soil. The upper part of the catchment is covered by mixed forest and the spring source is located at an altitude of 2600 m asl facing the northern slope. Slopes are very gentle at the base of hill due to the presence of terrace farming. The source is used by 104 families for domestic, food and drink and livestock purposes. A small quantity of water is used for irrigation during the winter. Flow is minimal during the dry season. Spring flow in the post-monsoon season (Sept–13) was measured at 1 l/s using a bucket gauge. Flows in the pre-monsoon season (April–14) had reduced to <0.2 l/s.

Seto Dhunga (Nangi)
This source is located near Nangi village. It is also a perennial spring source located on the black clay and red mixed gravel soil. Needle type mix forest is dominant followed by rhododendron forest. The spring source is used by 10–15 households use for domestic purposes. This water source is preferable to the nearby spring source (Citeni) as it is warmer in the winter and better for washing. Flow was estimated to be 0.2 l/s in the pre-monsoon season (April–14). The site was not visited in the post-monsoon season (Sept–13).

Tallo Pandhera (Nangi)
This spring source located near Nangi village is perennial. Located near the community lodge of Nangi village its catchment has mix type of forest at the upper part of the source. The source is used by one household for domestic use and within a fishery. Flow was estimated to be 1 l/s during the pre-monsoon season (April–14). During the monsoon season the ground around the spring becomes marshy.

Citeni (Ramche)
This water source is located at 2816 m asl. The people of Ramche (125 households) and Kafaldanada village (>200 households) are dependent upon this source. The spring source faces south-east and the top slopes have snow cover for ~4 months of the year. The upper part of the source is covered by rhododendron and mixed forest. The head of the spring is located at an altitude of 3000 m asl facing south-west slope. Geographically this area is located at the north- western part of Ramche VDC. Flow in the main channel downstream from the spring was estimated using a bucket gauge to be 4l/s in the post monsoon season, by the pre-monsoon season flows had reduced to <0.5 l/s. Approx. 30 new taps supplied by this spring source were due to be constructed in 2014.

Thulo Gaun Pandhera (Ramche)
This spring source is located at 2370 m asl. It is a perennial spring source for Ramche village located on the black mixed gravel soil. This serves as the main spring source for Ramche village.

The spring source faces the north-east slope. The upper part of the source is covered by schima-castanopsis and rhododendron mixed forest with settlements in the lower part. The source supplies approximately 20–30 households. One household uses the water supply for irrigation in the pre-monsoon season. In the winter months the overflow from the spring dries and the main tapped supply is reduced to 50%. There are no reported water scarcity issues even in the dry season. The spring source is reported to respond quickly to rainfall with flows increasing a day after the rainfall event.

Sanu Gaun Pandhera (Ramche)
This source is located within the Ramche village at an elevation of 2360 m asl. Approximately 5–10 households use this but it is not considered as a major source, though it is perennial. It is a preferred spring source for washing in the winter as the water is warmer than other sources. The upper part of the source is covered by schima-castanopsis and rhododendron mixed forest and settlement at the lower part.

Madanpokhara, Palpa

Location

Madanpokhara VDC is one of 65 VDCs in Palpa District (Figure 15). The Kaligandaki, Tinau, Ridi, Nisdi and Purwa are the major rivers in the district while the Satyawati, Pravash Lake and Sita Kunda form the main surface water features. The VDC is located at an altitude of 560–1240 m asl with a total area of approximately 1800 ha almost 40% of which lies below 1000 m asl. The landscape consists primarily of Middle Mountain, Churia foothills and flood plain. Agricultural land is situated along Mandi phant valley and is surrounded by the Mahabharat hills in the north and Siwalik Hills in the south (Moench, et al., 1999). Tansen Municipality is located north of Madanpokhara.

Figure 15    Location of Madanpokhara VDC and wards.

Population and literary

Madan Pokhara VDC has a population of 6281 with 1541 households (CBS, 2011). The VDC is inhabited by Brahmins, Magar and Newar castes, and members of the dalit community. Hinduism is the major religion in the VDC. The latest progress report of the VDC indicates that people are 100% literate. Commercial vegetable farming is the main source of employment in Madanpokhara VDC, though people are also engaged in civil services.

Land use

Madanpokhara covers an area of approximately 1800 ha with most of the land used for agriculture (~80%). The remaining land is predominantly set aside for community forest with 13 community forest user groups in the VDC. Resources from the forest serve approximately 1200 households of the VDC. The details of other forms of land use in the VDC and individual wards are listed in the Table 5.

Table 5    Land Use within Madanpokhara VDC. (Source: Values derived from DOS, 1993)

Ward	Agriculture (ha)	Forest (ha)	Shrub (ha)	Barren (ha)	Water bodies (ha)	Total (ha)
1	114.19	25.34	1.98	0.34	1.77	143.62
2	107.98	32.80	8.84	0.20	0.00	149.83
3	38.34	87.54	10.50	0.00	3.46	139.84
4	53.42	116.99	0.24	0.52	1.50	172.66
5	376.68	10.61	0.00	0.00	0.00	387.29
6	191.14	8.09	0.58	0.00	2.26	202.07
7	254.05	4.15	0.58	0.00	0.00	258.79
8	254.05	8.17	0.00	0.00	0.00	262.22
9	84.31	7.26	0.00	0.00	0.00	91.57
Total	1474.16	300.95	22.73	1.06	8.99	1807.89

Climate

Palpa district has a tropical to sub-tropical climate meaning Madanpokhara VDC experiences hot summers and warm winters. The mean maximum temperature of the district is 22.8°C and mean minimum is 13.4°C. There are two rain stations in the district provided by the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, Government of Nepal which record an average annual rainfall of 1588 mm and daily maximum of 844 mm (Figure 16).

Figure 16    Mean annual rainfall of Palpa district. Rainfall data from Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, Government of Nepal, gauging stations 726, 702.

Economy and livelihood

Most people in Madanpokhara are employed in the agricultural sector though the business and service sectors offer an additional source of income. While some wards use sprinkler irrigation systems, all wards within the VDC lack formal canal irrigation facilities, as a result people practice rainwater harvesting and collecting it in ponds to support irrigation during dry periods, especially for vegetable farming. The cereal crop (especially paddy, wheat and maize) production is mostly dependent on a rain-fed system though rainfall is not sufficient to meet the water demand. Over the last 5–10 years groundwater resources, through the installation of shallow tubewells, have been exploited in some wards to support water demand for irrigation. Madanpokhara is a major supplier of vegetables to markets in Butwal.

Nature of catchment and water source under study

In Madanpokhara VDC, the main catchment comprises the Tinau river in the eastern and southern part, with surface water flows to the Hulandi river in the western part of the VDC. The Tinau river originates from the Mahabharat range whereas the Hulandi river originates from the Siwalik range.

Details of the water sources investigated as part of this study are presented in Table 6 (Springs and streams) and Table 7 (Shallow tubewells) and shown in Figures 17–19.

The Andheri spring is a drinking water source for people of ward 1 and 2, the system was developed in 2007 (Dixit et al., 2012). People also use groundwater for drinking and irrigation needs. More than 10 water sources in the VDC have dried totally and seasonal drying of springs has also been reported (Dixit and Khadka 2013<ref name="Dixit 2013"</ref>).

Figure 17    Madanpokhara VDC, with field sampling locations, river gauging stations and rain gauges shown. Elevation data USGS (2004) Shuttle Radar Topography Mission.

Figure 18    Location of the spring sources and sampling points in Madanpokhara. Image © 2014 CNES/Astrium.

Figure 19    Location of studied sources at Madanpokahra.

Table 6    Spring and stream sampling sites in Madanpokhara

SN	Name of source	Location in VDC	Type
New	Nayapati	Madanpokhara-5, Nayapati	Perennial
MP.19	Bahun Khola	Madanpokhara-8	Perennial
MP.29	Baad Khola	Madanpokahar-8	Perennial
MP.31	Andheri Charchare	Madanpokahara-6	Perennial
MP.30	Source near vulture conservation centre	Madanpokahara-6	Perennial
MP.24	Artesian tube well	Madanpokahara-6	Perennial
MP.20	Community tube well	Madanpokahara-7	Perennial

Natyapati spring source

This source is located at the Madanpokhara ward 5. Though perennial, spring discharge is very low during the winter and dry seasons. Approximately 10–15 households are using this source for domestic purposes. This site has been newly added to our monitoring programme and flow data for the spring is currently unavailable. This site was not visited during the post-monsoon and pre-monsoon field visits.

Bahun Khola

This stream source is one of the main water sources, supporting approximately 10 households. The land that surrounds this source is agricultural, predominantly for growing vegetables. The stream completely dries in the dry season, as any available water is collected for domestic water supply purposes. Outside of the dry season a small amount of stream flows occurs. A storage tank has been constructed close to the river which local farmers use for irrigation. People report that the tanks have water stored all year round. A pipe connected from the stream fills the tank. Flow was estimated to be approximately 5 l/s in the post-monsoon season (Sept–13), reducing to approximately 0.1 l/s in the pre-monsoon season (April–14). There is insufficient water for irrigation during the dry season, in which case they re-use domestic water. Water usage is reported to have been fairly steady over the last 5 years but an increasing population has led to increased water use.

Baad Khola

Groundwater seepages and springs serve as the main water supply for this source. The source is also fed by surface flows upstream with a series of narrow black alcathene pipes used to transport water down to the village. Three households and one hotel (wards 7 and 8) use the source for domestic purposes. In addition a small amount of water is used for irrigation (<1 hectare). Flow in the stream downstream of the spring source was estimated to be 10 l/s during the post-monsoon season (Sept–13).

Andheri Charchare

The source is mainly used for meeting domestic needs and irrigation. During the dry season the local school in ward 6 uses this source to meet drinking water needs. Previously the flow was very low in the dry season but in recent years the flow in the dry season has increased. Locals think there has been an increase in flow because land near to this source has been afforested. Even though flow has increased it is still low during the dry season.

Source near vulture conservation centre

This source is located in ward 7, lies in the forest area and is used all year round. The amount of water used by individuals has remained fairly steady over the last 5–10 years or so but more people are using the source, hence there is greater demand for water from this source. At present 10–15 households are using the supply mainly for domestic use but also a small amount for irrigation.

Shallow tube wells

A large number of shallow tube wells have been installed in the last 5–10 years at the base of the slopes, within the flood plains and along rice fields of ward 6. These tubewells have been hand dug and tend to 60–80 ft deep. The deepest tubewell is reported to be 125 ft deep. Many tubewells have electric pump installed, shallower tubewells (<35 ft deep) have hand pump. Some 10 or so tubewells are reported to have problems with high iron — evidence of high iron was observed at three tubewells during the field visits. The tube-wells provide a year-round water supply. Some of the tubewells towards the centre of the floodplain are reported to be artesian during the monsoon season. One tubewell (MP.24) was found to be artesian in the pre-monsoon season (April–14) and is likely to be artesian all year round. The floodplain in which the tubewells have been dug floods to a depth of one metre during the monsoon but typically only remains in flood for one day. Table 7 provides details of the tubewells sampled during the field visits.

Table 7    Description of the tubewells sampled in Madanpokhara VDC

Tubewell	Depth	Installed	Use	Comments
MP.20	75 ft	Unknown	15 households for domestic purposes plus approx. 200l/day for irrigation.	Tubewell has never gone dry and is used all year round.
MP.21	60 ft	2010	One household uses the tubewell for domestic use and irrigation.	The tubewell is artesian during the monsoon season.
MP.22	65 ft	2009	One household uses the tubewell for irrigation all year round other than during the monsoon.	Suggestion of high iron content and an odour when drinking. The tubewell is artesian during the monsoon season.
MP.23	80 ft	Unknown	Used by 7 households for irrigation.	The tubewell was paid for by the government and installed with an electric 4 inch pump. Iron odour.
MP.24	Unknown	Unknown	Unknown	Artesian tubewell overflowing at a rate of 0.12 l/s during the pre-monsoon season (April–14). The lack of hand pump suggests it may be permanently artesian. Iron staining but no odour.
MP.25	80 ft	2011	One household for irrigation in the dry season.	An alternative source is used for drinking due to the high iron content. Electric pump installed. Rest water level (April–14) 1.2 m below ground.
MP.26	75 ft	2010	One household for irrigation (0.6 hectares) except during monsoon.	Electric pump installed. Another tubewell just uphill was dry when dug.
MP.27	42 ft	2004	6 households use for domestic and for irrigation except during monsoon.	Electric pump installed.