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Water quality - Vale of Pickering

2026-10-21T12:24:11Z

Ajhil: /* Contact */

{{underconstruction}}
==Water-quality monitoring in the Vale of Pickering==
Water-quality monitoring was carried out by the operator at and around the Kirby Misperton (KMA) operational and former planned shale-gas site. The BGS's monitoring investigations were additional and independent.

* [[Vale of Pickering - Groundwater-bearing rocks | Groundwater-bearing rocks]]
* [[Vale of Pickering - Sampling water | Sampling water]]
* [[Vale of Pickering - Water-quality results | Water-quality results]]

==Reports==
Ward, R S; Smedley, P L; Allen, G; Baptie, B J; Barker, P; Barkwith, A K A P; Bates, P; Bateson, L; Bell, R A; Coleman, M; Cremen, G; Crewdson, E; Daraktchieva, Z; Gong, M; Howarth, C H; France, J; Lewis, A C; Lister, T R; Lowry, D; Luckett, R; Mallin Martin, D; Marchant, B P; Miller, C A; Milne, C J; Novellino, A; Pitt, J; Purvis, R M; Rivett, M O; Shaw, J; Taylor-Curran, H; Wasiekiewicz, J M; Werner, M; Wilde, S. 2020. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/528719/ Environmental monitoring: phase 5 final report (April 2019 - March 2020)]. Nottingham, UK, British Geological Survey, 137pp. (OR/20/035) (Unpublished)

Ward, R S, Smedley, P L, Allen, G, Baptie, B J, Barkwith, A, Bateson, L, Bell, R A, Bowes, M, Coleman, M, Cremen, G, Daraktchieva, Z, M, Fisher, R E, Gong, M, Howarth, C H, Jones, D G, Jordan, C J, Lanoiselle, M, Lewis, A, Lister, T R, Lowry, D, Luckett, R, Mallin–Mertin, D, Marchant, B, Miller, C A, Milne, C J, Novellino, A, Pitt, J, Purvis, R M, Rivett, M, Shaw, R, Wasikiewicz, J M, Werner, M, and Wilde S. 2020. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/527726/ Environmental Monitoring – Phase 4 Final Report (April 2018–March 2019)]. BGS Open Report, OR/19/044, 197pp.

Ward, R S, Smedley, P L, Allen, G, Baptie, B J, Cave, M R, Daraktchieva, Z, Fisher, R, Hawthorn, D, Jones, D G, Lewis, A, Lowry, D, Luckett, R, Marchant, B P, Purvis, R M, and Wilde, S. 2018. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/521380/ Environmental baseline monitoring: Phase III final report (2017–2018)]. BGS Open Report, OR/18/026, 143pp.

Smedley, P L, Ward, R S, Bearcock, J M, and Bowes, M J. 2017. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/521380/ Establishing the baseline in groundwater chemistry in connection with shale–gas exploration: Vale of Pickering, UK]. Procedia Earth and Planetary Science, 17. 678–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeps.2016.12.143.

Ward, R S, Smedley, P L, Allen, G, Baptie, B J, Daraktchieva, Z, Horleston, A, Jones, D G, Jordan, C J, Lewis, A, Lowry, D, Purvis, R M, and Rivett, M O. 2017. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/517889/ Environmental Baseline Monitoring Project. Phase II, final report]. BGS Open Report, OR/17/049, 163pp.

Newell, A J, Ward, R S, and Fellgett, M W. 2016. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/520795/ A preliminary 3D model of post–Permian bedrock geology in the Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire, UK]. BGS Open Report, OR/15/068.

Bearcock, J B, Smedley, P L, and Milne, C J. 2015. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/511547/ Baseline groundwater chemistry: the Corallian of the Vale of Pickering, Yorkshire]. BGS Open Report, OR/15/048.

Ford, J R, Hughes, L, Burke, H F, and Lee, J R. 2015. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/512437/ The Vale of Pickering: an initial summary of the Quaternary/superficial geology and data holdings]. BGS Open Report, OR/15/064.

Smedley, P L, Ward, R S, Allen, G, Baptie, B, Daraktchieva, Z, Jones, D G, Jordan, C J, Purvis, R M and Cigna, F. 2015. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/512628/ Site selection strategy for environmental monitoring in connection with shale–gas exploration: Vale of Pickering, Yorkshire and Fylde, Lancashire]. BGS Open Report, OR/15/067.

==Contact==
Contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for further information.
[[category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire]]

Water quality - Vale of Pickering

2026-10-21T12:23:36Z

Ajhil: /* Contact */

Water quality - Vale of Pickering

2026-10-21T12:23:11Z

Ajhil:

Vale of Pickering - Groundwater-bearing rocks

2026-10-21T12:22:39Z

Ajhil:

==Groundwater–bearing rocks==

Two main aquifers exist within the Vale of Pickering. The first is a shallow, superficial aquifer consisting of Quaternary glacial and lake deposits in the lowland central part of the vale. These sediments consist of local sand and gravel horizons within deposits of mainly clay and silt, which reach thicknesses of up to around 40 m in parts of the vale (Figure 1).

The shallow sediments are designated by the [https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/environment-agency/ Environment Agency] (EA) as a Secondary B aquifer. The Quaternary deposits are underlain by often weathered clay and occasional sandy horizons of Jurassic age (Kimmeridge Clay). The superficial aquifer is used for small-scale, private water supply.

[[Image:Superficial_Fig2.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1'''    Superficial geology of the Vale of Pickering.</center>

The older, Jurassic Corallian Limestone aquifer crops out on the southern, western and northern margins of the vale and at depth below the Quaternary and Jurassic deposits (of the order of 200 m below ground level in the Kirby Misperton area).

The Corallian Limestone forms a Principal aquifer and is used for both public and private supply in the outcropping areas on the margins of the vale. In the central part, groundwater from the Corallian Limestone is not used due to its depth and increased salinity. Geological modelling shows the prevalence of faulting, mostly with an east–west orientation, in the central part of the vale (Figure 2).

[[Image:Corallian_Fig3.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Geological model of the Corallian Group strata showing depth variations, faults and location of boreholes (yellow) used in the construction of the model.</center>

The Chalk forms a further Principal aquifer beyond the vale in the south east.

==Contact==
==Contact==
Contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for further information.
[[category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire ]]

Vale of Pickering - Groundwater-bearing rocks

2026-10-21T12:20:57Z

Ajhil:

==Groundwater–bearing rocks==

Two main aquifers exist within the Vale of Pickering. The first is a shallow, superficial aquifer consisting of Quaternary glacial and lake deposits in the lowland central part of the vale. These sediments consist of local sand and gravel horizons within deposits of mainly clay and silt, which reach thicknesses of up to around 40 m in parts of the vale (Figure 1).

The shallow sediments are designated by the [https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/environment-agency/ Environment Agency] (EA) as a Secondary B aquifer. The Quaternary deposits are underlain by often weathered clay and occasional sandy horizons of Jurassic age (Kimmeridge Clay). The superficial aquifer is used for small-scale, private water supply.

[[Image:Superficial_Fig2.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1'''    Superficial geology of the Vale of Pickering.</center>

The older, Jurassic Corallian Limestone aquifer crops out on the southern, western and northern margins of the vale and at depth below the Quaternary and Jurassic deposits (of the order of 200 m below ground level in the Kirby Misperton area).

The Corallian Limestone forms a Principal aquifer and is used for both public and private supply in the outcropping areas on the margins of the vale. In the central part, groundwater from the Corallian Limestone is not used due to its depth and increased salinity. Geological modelling shows the prevalence of faulting, mostly with an east–west orientation, in the central part of the vale (Figure 2).

[[Image:Corallian_Fig3.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Geological model of the Corallian Group strata showing depth variations, faults and location of boreholes (yellow) used in the construction of the model.</center>

The Chalk forms a further Principal aquifer beyond the vale in the south east.

==Contact==
Contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for further information.
[[category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire ]]

[[Water quality - Vale of Pickering]]

Vale of Pickering - Groundwater-bearing rocks

2026-10-21T12:20:42Z

Ajhil:

==Groundwater–bearing rocks==

Two main aquifers exist within the Vale of Pickering. The first is a shallow, superficial aquifer consisting of Quaternary glacial and lake deposits in the lowland central part of the vale. These sediments consist of local sand and gravel horizons within deposits of mainly clay and silt, which reach thicknesses of up to around 40 m in parts of the vale (Figure 1).

The shallow sediments are designated by the [https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/environment-agency/ Environment Agency] (EA) as a Secondary B aquifer. The Quaternary deposits are underlain by often weathered clay and occasional sandy horizons of Jurassic age (Kimmeridge Clay). The superficial aquifer is used for small-scale, private water supply.

[[Image:Superficial_Fig2.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1'''    Superficial geology of the Vale of Pickering.</center>

The older, Jurassic Corallian Limestone aquifer crops out on the southern, western and northern margins of the vale and at depth below the Quaternary and Jurassic deposits (of the order of 200 m below ground level in the Kirby Misperton area).

The Corallian Limestone forms a Principal aquifer and is used for both public and private supply in the outcropping areas on the margins of the vale. In the central part, groundwater from the Corallian Limestone is not used due to its depth and increased salinity. Geological modelling shows the prevalence of faulting, mostly with an east–west orientation, in the central part of the vale (Figure 2).

[[Image:Corallian_Fig3.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Geological model of the Corallian Group strata showing depth variations, faults and location of boreholes (yellow) used in the construction of the model.</center>

The Chalk forms a further Principal aquifer beyond the vale in the south east.

==Contact==
Contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for further information.
[[category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire ]]

[[Water quality - Vale of Pickering]]

Vale of Pickering - Groundwater-bearing rocks

2026-10-21T12:19:45Z

Ajhil: /* Groundwater–bearing rocks */

==Groundwater–bearing rocks==

Two main aquifers exist within the Vale of Pickering. The first is a shallow, superficial aquifer consisting of Quaternary glacial and lake deposits in the lowland central part of the vale. These sediments consist of local sand and gravel horizons within deposits of mainly clay and silt, which reach thicknesses of up to around 40 m in parts of the vale (Figure 1).

The shallow sediments are designated by the [https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/environment-agency/ Environment Agency] (EA) as a Secondary B aquifer. The Quaternary deposits are underlain by often weathered clay and occasional sandy horizons of Jurassic age (Kimmeridge Clay). The superficial aquifer is used for small-scale, private water supply.

[[Image:Superficial_Fig2.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1'''    Superficial geology of the Vale of Pickering.</center>

The older, Jurassic Corallian Limestone aquifer crops out on the southern, western and northern margins of the vale and at depth below the Quaternary and Jurassic deposits (of the order of 200 m below ground level in the Kirby Misperton area).

The Corallian Limestone forms a Principal aquifer and is used for both public and private supply in the outcropping areas on the margins of the vale. In the central part, groundwater from the Corallian Limestone is not used due to its depth and increased salinity. Geological modelling shows the prevalence of faulting, mostly with an east–west orientation, in the central part of the vale (Figure 2).

[[Image:Corallian_Fig3.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Geological model of the Corallian Group strata showing depth variations, faults and location of boreholes (yellow) used in the construction of the model.</center>

The Chalk forms a further Principal aquifer beyond the vale in the south east.

Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.

[[Water quality - Vale of Pickering]]

Vale of Pickering - Groundwater-bearing rocks

2026-10-21T12:19:32Z

Ajhil:

==Groundwater–bearing rocks==

Two main aquifers exist within the Vale of Pickering. The first is a shallow, superficial aquifer consisting of Quaternary glacial and lake deposits in the lowland central part of the vale. These sediments consist of local sand and gravel horizons within deposits of mainly clay and silt, which reach thicknesses of up to around 40 m in parts of the vale (Figure 1).

The shallow sediments are designated by the [https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/environment-agency/ Environment Agency] (EA) as a Secondary B aquifer. The Quaternary deposits are underlain by often weathered clay and occasional sandy horizons of Jurassic age (Kimmeridge Clay). The superficial aquifer is used for small-scale, private water supply.

[[Image:Superficial_Fig2.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1'''    Superficial geology of the Vale of Pickering.</center>

The older, Jurassic Corallian Limestone aquifer crops out on the southern, western and northern margins of the vale and at depth below the Quaternary and Jurassic deposits (of the order of 200 m below ground level in the Kirby Misperton area).

The Corallian Limestone forms a Principal aquifer and is used for both public and private supply in the outcropping areas on the margins of the vale. In the central part, groundwater from the Corallian Limestone is not used due to its depth and increased salinity. Geological modelling shows the prevalence of faulting, mostly with an east–west orientation, in the central part of the vale (Figure 2).

[[Image:Corallian_Fig3.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Geological model of the Corallian Group strata showing depth variations, faults and location of boreholes (yellow) used in the construction of the model.</center>

The Chalk forms a further Principal aquifer beyond the vale in the south east.

Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.

[[Water quality - Vale of Pickering]]

Category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire

2026-10-21T12:18:08Z

Ajhil: /* Environmental baseline monitoring in the Vale of Pickering */

{{Underconstruction}}
==Environmental baseline monitoring in the Vale of Pickering==
BGS, along with the universities of [https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/ Birmingham], [https://www.bristol.ac.uk/ Bristol], [https://www.manchester.ac.uk/ Manchester], [https://www.royalholloway.ac.uk/ Royal Holloway] and [https://www.york.ac.uk/ York] and partners from [https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/public-health-england/about/ Public Health England] (PHE), conducted an independent environmental baseline monitoring programme in the Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire.

[[Image:SamplingStreamwaterVOP_P1010586.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Sampling streamwater for baseline chemical characteristics, Vale of Pickering.'''</center>

The investigation was initiated as a result of planning permission being granted in 2016 to oil and gas operator, Third Energy, to explore for shale gas by high-volume hydraulic fracturing at its Kirby Misperton site. Subsequent failure to obtain final government consent and the imposition of the 2019 moratorium on hydraulic fracturing for exploration in England meant that no hydraulic-fracturing operations were ever undertaken at the site. In early 2020, the site operator indicated an intention to drop plans for shale-gas exploration in favour of alternative subsurface energy developments.

==Monitoring==
The environmental monitoring programme was initiated in response to widespread public concern over the potential environmental impacts of new shale-gas exploration and was planned to continue through operations should they take place. The monitoring was separate from that conducted by the site operator.

The monitoring in and around the Vale of Pickering included:

* [[Water_quality_-_Vale_of_Pickering | water quality]] (groundwater and surface water)
* [[Seismicity - Vale of Pickering | seismicity]]
* [[Ground motion - Vale of Pickering | ground motion]]
* [[Air quality and greenhouse gases - Vale of Pickering | air quality]]
* [[Soil and near-surface gases - Vale of Pickering | soil gas]]

The activities included:

* Monitoring the quality of groundwater and surface water using an established network of monitoring sites
* Monitoring groundwater quality and water levels in newly established boreholes drilled into the local shallow aquifer
* Conducting time-integrated indoor and outdoor measurements of radon in air
* Conducting real-time monitoring of seismicity at six surface sites and four sites installed in new boreholes
* Conducting real-time monitoring of atmospheric greenhouse gases and indicators of air quality at and close to the former proposed exploration site (KMA)
* Streaming of real-time data to the BGS website
* Evaluating soil gas compositions from surveys at selected sites
* Interpretation of satellite data for assessment of ground motion
* Continuing an analogous environmental monitoring programme around a site of hydrocarbon exploration in Lancashire

==Establishment of the environmental baseline==
While the original remit of the project to establish a baseline ahead of shale-gas exploration no longer applies in the area, the project has served to provide robust environmental data for air, water, ground motion and soil. This has helped provide insights into natural, urban and industrial processes that impact on air and water quality including deep groundwater, guidance for monitoring nearfield natural and induced seismic events, testing of new and developing technologies for monitoring (including in real time), and insights into protocols and practice for sound environmental monitoring and data evaluation. The monitoring has been independent of the hydrocarbon industry and regulators to ensure evidence-based and impartial scientific outputs.

==Contact==
Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.

[[category:Shale gas environmental monitoring]]

Air quality and greenhouse gases - Fylde

2026-10-21T12:17:28Z

Ajhil: /* Greenhouse gases */

{{underconstruction}}
==Air quality and greenhouse gases==
The universities of York and Manchester together monitored air quality and greenhouse gases at the proposed Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site in the Fylde, Lancashire. The monitoring equipment for greenhouse gases was set up in December 2014 and for air quality in December 2015; as well as capturing meteorological information, they measured concentrations of:

* ozone (O3)
* particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM4, and PM10)
* nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2 and NOx)
* methane (CH4)
* non-methane hydrocarbons (NHMCs)
* hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
* carbon dioxide (CO2)

[[Image:airQualityLancashireSite.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1a'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:AirQualityMonitoringCabinet_3.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1b'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Rationale for monitoring==
In the context of shale gas exploration and production, atmospheric emissions have a number of potential effects. Emissions may (both separately and collectively) have implications for climate change, air quality, and public and occupational health.

==Public health==
These parameters concern direct primary emissions from infrastructure onsite such as PMs and NO2 from:

* generators
* traffic
* plant
* flares
* dust
* materials handling

There are also gases that may affect air quality, such as NMHCs and potentially hazardous and harmful trace gases such as benzene (C6H6).

Secondary effects may occur downwind through reactive chemistry. Unlike greenhouse gases, many of the species mentioned here are regulated both for emissions and in ambient air.

==The importance of greenhouse gases==
Wide variations in the concentration of these gases occur over various timescales as a result of uptake by plants and variations in anthropogenic emissions. Variations can be seen for even minor changes in wind direction, depending on local conditions (for example, if a road exists nearby). Monitoring of gases over time therefore provides an understanding of the baseline, to which any changes induced by future activity can be compared quantitatively.

There are numerous sources of greenhouse gases, both natural and artificial. Natural variations of long-lived greenhouse gases, mainly CH4 and carbon dioxide CO2, relate to soil and deeper subsurface processes. These variations are augmented by fugitive emissions from vehicle exhausts, industry and landfill. Development of a shale gas exploration programme potentially adds further fugitive emissions from leaks, gas storage, processing operations, fracking fluid and flowback. It is important to establish the range of baseline concentrations of greenhouse gases and other air-quality parameters before any shale gas operations begin.

==The monitoring site==
The monitoring site was located close to the Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site at Preston New Road, Little Plumpton, Lancashire. A waterproof enclosure was installed with instrumentation to measure continuous concentrations of O3, PMs, NOx, CH4 and CO2, as well as wind speed and direction, air temperature, and relative humidity. In addition, air samples were taken to the University of York for analysis of a wider range of parameters.

==Data interpretation==
==Meteorology==
The wind statistics observed over an example measurement period (4 December 2014 to 14 March 2016) are shown in Figure 2 as a conventional wind rose. This type of illustration shows the number of times that the wind blows from various directions. The colour scale illustrates the corresponding proportion of winds in each direction for a range of surface wind speeds.

As expected at this site, as for any exposed site in the UK, the dominant wind direction is from the western quadrant (about 50 per cent of the time), consistent with the UK’s location as an island in the Atlantic mid-latitude storm track. This is also the direction from which the strongest winds are observed (red colours in Figure 2), typically coinciding with the passage of mid-latitude cyclones over the UK mainland.

[[Image:plumptonMet.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Wind rose showing wind speed and direction statistics for the period November 2014 to March 2016. The radius defines the percentage of time the wind in each of 12 wind direction cones (30° span), while the colour scale defines the wind speed (red colours indicate strong wind speeds over 6 ms-1 and yellow colours indicate lighter winds). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
This is important for understanding the local baseline. The position of the site near to the Blackpool shoreline means that winds bringing air from the Atlantic will typically carry relatively well-mixed and background airmasses to the measurement site. (In this context, a ‘background’ can be conceived to be an airmass relatively unaffected by local or regional pollution sources, broadly representative of the average composition of northern hemispheric air at the time.)

==Greenhouse gases==
Greenhouse gas concentrations were measured from December 2014. A time series of the data is shown in Figure 3. A general correlation between CO2 and CH4 can be seen over the measurement period. There are clear periods of background where CO2 and CH4 concentrations appear relatively flat at around 400 parts per million (ppm) and 2 ppm respectively. These periods coincide with westerly winds and represent the relatively unpolluted air from the Atlantic. The periods of generally enhanced CO2 and CH4 (between 400 and 450 ppm and 2 and 4 ppm, respectively) are most often with moderate easterly and southerly winds. The short-term events (spikes on the graph) coincide most often with light south easterly and northerly wind directions.

[[Image:plumptonCH4CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 3'''    Time series of carbon dioxide (grey) and methane (red) in units of ppm (December 2014 to March 2016). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
The elevated concentrations above the background represent a wide mix of pollutant sources upwind, both local and regional, that are being further investigated. It should be noted that the concentrations of greenhouse gases measured are not toxic or known to be hazardous to health.

Figure 4 shows a sample of the measured data in Figure 2 for CH4 and CO2 but for a 24-hour period. All measurements over a given hour of day for the dataset period are shown together. This gives an idea of when, during an average day, there were changes in concentration relative to the expected baseline. The bold line is the average for that hour of day and the shaded area is the 95 per cent confidence interval. The data shows that there are relative peaks in both the morning and afternoon, as is generally expected for these species.

[[Image:fig2a_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4a'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CH4. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:fig2b_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4b'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CO2. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Air quality==
The time series for O3, NO, NO2, NOx, PM1, PM2.5, PM4 and PM10 are shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7. The data indicates that there are times when the site is affected by higher levels of pollution in the form of NO, NO2 and PMs (spikes on the graphs). O3 shows elevated typical maritime concentrations from the west and is indicative of an aged air mass, broadly reflective of prevailing Atlantic ozone. The influence of the Atlantic air is also shown in the PM measurements, which are all enhanced when the wind is from the west as a result of maritime aerosols.

Local influence can also be observed as spikes on the graphs. Further investigation is being carried out but a road running close to the site may be a contributory factor.

[[Image:TimeSeriesOfOzoneConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 5'''    Time series of Ozone (O3) concentrations. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 6'''    TimeSeriesOfNOConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsYorks.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 7'''    TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Measurement statistics==
The concentration statistics for the range of parameters measured are shown in Table 1. The mean concentration of CH4 is slightly above the northern hemispheric seasonal average of about 1.9 ppm, while the CO2 site average is marginally enhanced relative to the hemispheric average (about 402 ppm). The concentration statistics for the other parameters represent only a limited dataset to date.

Table 1 Statistical metrics for air quality pollutants. Percentages refer to percentiles. LOD refers to measurements below the limit of detection of the instrument.

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
|-
|Compound
|10%
|25%
|33%
|Mean
|75%
|90%
|95%
|-
|CH4 (ppm)
|1.93
|1.94
|1.95
|2.22
|2.12
|2.68
|3.66
|-
|CO2 (ppb)
|399.13
|402.52
|403.74
|412.83
|418.16
|435.12
|447.34
|-
|O3 (ppb)
|11.37
|23.77
|27.43
|33.32
|38.85
|41.21
|42.73
|-
|NO (ppb)
|0.08
|0.19
|0.26
|0.54
|1.26
|3.17
|7.68
|-
|NO2 (ppb)
|LOD
|LOD
|0.13
|0.96
|4.65
|12.99
|18.93
|-
|NOx (ppb)
|LOD
|0.20
|0.59
|1.60
|5.72
|17.36
|26.15
|-
|PM1 (μg / m3)
|1.06
|1.82
|2.23
|3.01
|5.93
|12.38
|18.12
|-
|PM2.5 (μg / m3)
|1.92
|3.31
|4.04
|5.57
|9.40
|14.49
|19.59
|-
|PM4 (μg / m3)
|2.54
|4.47
|5.49
|7.66
|11.97
|17.64
|21.26
|-
|PM10 (μg / m3)
|3.14
|5.61
|6.73
|9.12
|13.90
|19.91
|23.79
|-
|PMtotal (μg / m3)
|3.69
|6.55
|7.80
|10.55
|15.87
|22.34
|26.43
|-
|Particle Count (particles/cm3)
|15.52
|22.70
|27.29
|41.86
|143.30
|369.60
|490.53
|}

==Non-methane hydrocarbons results==
Samples for hydrocarbon (C2 to C6) analysis were collected weekly in special canisters from both the Little Plumpton (Lancashire) and Kirby Misperton (Yorkshire) sites and returned to the WACL laboratory at the University of York’s [https://www.york.ac.uk/chemistry/research/wacl/ Wolfson Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratories.]

The plots in figures 8, 9 and 10 show the distribution of individual species (ethane, propane and benzene) at the Little Plumpton and Kirby Misperton sites, together with distributions from a site at Auchencorth Moss in Scotland and samples taken from air above BGS’s boreholes around Kirby Misperton. The dataset for hydrocarbons from 2016 is available on the [https://catalogue.ceda.ac.uk/uuid/4878d1fcd0694c07a0dc08ceaccae9e1/ BADC website archive.]

[[Image:figure8_boxplot (3).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 8'''    Box plots showing the distributions of ethane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure9_boxplot (2).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 9'''    Box plots showing the distributions of propane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure10_boxplot.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 10'''    Box plots showing the distributions of benzene from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.

Benzene annual mean concentration at Little Plumpton: 0.412 ppb; observed range: 0.046 to 2.4 ppb (n=26 samples over October 2015 to October 2016).

Note: EC Air Quality Directive limit value for benzene (annual mean) = 1.54 ppb. Observations to date indicate a mean baseline concentration around a factor of three lower than the EC directive limit value.</center>

[[category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Fylde, Lancashire]]

Air quality and greenhouse gases - Fylde

2026-10-21T12:12:15Z

Ajhil: /* Greenhouse gases */

{{underconstruction}}
==Air quality and greenhouse gases==
The universities of York and Manchester together monitored air quality and greenhouse gases at the proposed Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site in the Fylde, Lancashire. The monitoring equipment for greenhouse gases was set up in December 2014 and for air quality in December 2015; as well as capturing meteorological information, they measured concentrations of:

* ozone (O3)
* particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM4, and PM10)
* nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2 and NOx)
* methane (CH4)
* non-methane hydrocarbons (NHMCs)
* hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
* carbon dioxide (CO2)

[[Image:airQualityLancashireSite.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1a'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:AirQualityMonitoringCabinet_3.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1b'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Rationale for monitoring==
In the context of shale gas exploration and production, atmospheric emissions have a number of potential effects. Emissions may (both separately and collectively) have implications for climate change, air quality, and public and occupational health.

==Public health==
These parameters concern direct primary emissions from infrastructure onsite such as PMs and NO2 from:

* generators
* traffic
* plant
* flares
* dust
* materials handling

There are also gases that may affect air quality, such as NMHCs and potentially hazardous and harmful trace gases such as benzene (C6H6).

Secondary effects may occur downwind through reactive chemistry. Unlike greenhouse gases, many of the species mentioned here are regulated both for emissions and in ambient air.

==The importance of greenhouse gases==
Wide variations in the concentration of these gases occur over various timescales as a result of uptake by plants and variations in anthropogenic emissions. Variations can be seen for even minor changes in wind direction, depending on local conditions (for example, if a road exists nearby). Monitoring of gases over time therefore provides an understanding of the baseline, to which any changes induced by future activity can be compared quantitatively.

There are numerous sources of greenhouse gases, both natural and artificial. Natural variations of long-lived greenhouse gases, mainly CH4 and carbon dioxide CO2, relate to soil and deeper subsurface processes. These variations are augmented by fugitive emissions from vehicle exhausts, industry and landfill. Development of a shale gas exploration programme potentially adds further fugitive emissions from leaks, gas storage, processing operations, fracking fluid and flowback. It is important to establish the range of baseline concentrations of greenhouse gases and other air-quality parameters before any shale gas operations begin.

==The monitoring site==
The monitoring site was located close to the Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site at Preston New Road, Little Plumpton, Lancashire. A waterproof enclosure was installed with instrumentation to measure continuous concentrations of O3, PMs, NOx, CH4 and CO2, as well as wind speed and direction, air temperature, and relative humidity. In addition, air samples were taken to the University of York for analysis of a wider range of parameters.

==Data interpretation==
==Meteorology==
The wind statistics observed over an example measurement period (4 December 2014 to 14 March 2016) are shown in Figure 2 as a conventional wind rose. This type of illustration shows the number of times that the wind blows from various directions. The colour scale illustrates the corresponding proportion of winds in each direction for a range of surface wind speeds.

As expected at this site, as for any exposed site in the UK, the dominant wind direction is from the western quadrant (about 50 per cent of the time), consistent with the UK’s location as an island in the Atlantic mid-latitude storm track. This is also the direction from which the strongest winds are observed (red colours in Figure 2), typically coinciding with the passage of mid-latitude cyclones over the UK mainland.

[[Image:plumptonMet.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Wind rose showing wind speed and direction statistics for the period November 2014 to March 2016. The radius defines the percentage of time the wind in each of 12 wind direction cones (30° span), while the colour scale defines the wind speed (red colours indicate strong wind speeds over 6 ms-1 and yellow colours indicate lighter winds). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
This is important for understanding the local baseline. The position of the site near to the Blackpool shoreline means that winds bringing air from the Atlantic will typically carry relatively well-mixed and background airmasses to the measurement site. (In this context, a ‘background’ can be conceived to be an airmass relatively unaffected by local or regional pollution sources, broadly representative of the average composition of northern hemispheric air at the time.)

==Greenhouse gases==
Greenhouse gas concentrations were measured from December 2014. A time series of the data is shown in Figure 3. A general correlation between CO2 and CH4 can be seen over the measurement period. There are clear periods of background where CO2 and CH4 concentrations appear relatively flat at around 400 parts per million (ppm) and 2 ppm respectively. These periods coincide with westerly winds and represent the relatively unpolluted air from the Atlantic. The periods of generally enhanced CO2 and CH4 (between 400 and 450 ppm and 2 and 4 ppm, respectively) are most often with moderate easterly and southerly winds. The short-term events (spikes on the graph) coincide most often with light south easterly and northerly wind directions.

[[Image:plumptonCH4CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 3'''    Time series of carbon dioxide (grey) and methane (red) in units of ppm (December 2014 to March 2016). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
The elevated concentrations above the background represent a wide mix of pollutant sources upwind, both local and regional, that are being further investigated. It should be noted that the concentrations of greenhouse gases measured are not toxic or known to be hazardous to health.

Figure 4 shows a sample of the measured data in Figure 2 for CH4 and CO2 but for a 24-hour period. All measurements over a given hour of day for the dataset period are shown together. This gives an idea of when, during an average day, there were changes in concentration relative to the expected baseline. The bold line is the average for that hour of day and the shaded area is the 95 per cent confidence interval. The data shows that there are relative peaks in both the morning and afternoon, as is generally expected for these species.

[[Image:fig2a_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4a'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CH4. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:fig2b_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4b'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CO2. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Air quality==
The time series for O3, NO, NO2, NOx, PM1, PM2.5, PM4 and PM10 are shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7. The data indicates that there are times when the site is affected by higher levels of pollution in the form of NO, NO2 and PMs (spikes on the graphs). O3 shows elevated typical maritime concentrations from the west and is indicative of an aged air mass, broadly reflective of prevailing Atlantic ozone. The influence of the Atlantic air is also shown in the PM measurements, which are all enhanced when the wind is from the west as a result of maritime aerosols.

Local influence can also be observed as spikes on the graphs. Further investigation is being carried out but a road running close to the site may be a contributory factor.

[[Image:TimeSeriesOfOzoneConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 5'''    Time series of Ozone (O3) concentrations. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 6'''    TimeSeriesOfNOConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsYorks.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 7'''    TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Measurement statistics==
The concentration statistics for the range of parameters measured are shown in Table 1. The mean concentration of CH4 is slightly above the northern hemispheric seasonal average of about 1.9 ppm, while the CO2 site average is marginally enhanced relative to the hemispheric average (about 402 ppm). The concentration statistics for the other parameters represent only a limited dataset to date.

Table 1 Statistical metrics for air quality pollutants. Percentages refer to percentiles. LOD refers to measurements below the limit of detection of the instrument.

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
|-
|Compound
|10%
|25%
|33%
|Mean
|75%
|90%
|95%
|-
|CH4 (ppm)
|1.93
|1.94
|1.95
|2.22
|2.12
|2.68
|3.66
|-
|CO2 (ppb)
|399.13
|402.52
|403.74
|412.83
|418.16
|435.12
|447.34
|-
|O3 (ppb)
|11.37
|23.77
|27.43
|33.32
|38.85
|41.21
|42.73
|-
|NO (ppb)
|0.08
|0.19
|0.26
|0.54
|1.26
|3.17
|7.68
|-
|NO2 (ppb)
|LOD
|LOD
|0.13
|0.96
|4.65
|12.99
|18.93
|-
|NOx (ppb)
|LOD
|0.20
|0.59
|1.60
|5.72
|17.36
|26.15
|-
|PM1 (μg / m3)
|1.06
|1.82
|2.23
|3.01
|5.93
|12.38
|18.12
|-
|PM2.5 (μg / m3)
|1.92
|3.31
|4.04
|5.57
|9.40
|14.49
|19.59
|-
|PM4 (μg / m3)
|2.54
|4.47
|5.49
|7.66
|11.97
|17.64
|21.26
|-
|PM10 (μg / m3)
|3.14
|5.61
|6.73
|9.12
|13.90
|19.91
|23.79
|-
|PMtotal (μg / m3)
|3.69
|6.55
|7.80
|10.55
|15.87
|22.34
|26.43
|-
|Particle Count (particles/cm3)
|15.52
|22.70
|27.29
|41.86
|143.30
|369.60
|490.53
|}

==Non-methane hydrocarbons results==
Samples for hydrocarbon (C2 to C6) analysis were collected weekly in special canisters from both the Little Plumpton (Lancashire) and Kirby Misperton (Yorkshire) sites and returned to the WACL laboratory at the University of York’s [https://www.york.ac.uk/chemistry/research/wacl/ Wolfson Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratories.]

The plots in figures 8, 9 and 10 show the distribution of individual species (ethane, propane and benzene) at the Little Plumpton and Kirby Misperton sites, together with distributions from a site at Auchencorth Moss in Scotland and samples taken from air above BGS’s boreholes around Kirby Misperton. The dataset for hydrocarbons from 2016 is available on the [https://catalogue.ceda.ac.uk/uuid/4878d1fcd0694c07a0dc08ceaccae9e1/ BADC website archive.]

[[Image:figure8_boxplot (3).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 8'''    Box plots showing the distributions of ethane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure9_boxplot (2).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 9'''    Box plots showing the distributions of propane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure10_boxplot.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 10'''    Box plots showing the distributions of benzene from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.

Benzene annual mean concentration at Little Plumpton: 0.412 ppb; observed range: 0.046 to 2.4 ppb (n=26 samples over October 2015 to October 2016).

Note: EC Air Quality Directive limit value for benzene (annual mean) = 1.54 ppb. Observations to date indicate a mean baseline concentration around a factor of three lower than the EC directive limit value.</center>

[[category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Fylde, Lancashire]]

Air quality and greenhouse gases - Fylde

2026-10-21T12:08:37Z

Ajhil: /* Meteorology */

{{underconstruction}}
==Air quality and greenhouse gases==
The universities of York and Manchester together monitored air quality and greenhouse gases at the proposed Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site in the Fylde, Lancashire. The monitoring equipment for greenhouse gases was set up in December 2014 and for air quality in December 2015; as well as capturing meteorological information, they measured concentrations of:

* ozone (O3)
* particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM4, and PM10)
* nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2 and NOx)
* methane (CH4)
* non-methane hydrocarbons (NHMCs)
* hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
* carbon dioxide (CO2)

[[Image:airQualityLancashireSite.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1a'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:AirQualityMonitoringCabinet_3.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1b'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Rationale for monitoring==
In the context of shale gas exploration and production, atmospheric emissions have a number of potential effects. Emissions may (both separately and collectively) have implications for climate change, air quality, and public and occupational health.

==Public health==
These parameters concern direct primary emissions from infrastructure onsite such as PMs and NO2 from:

* generators
* traffic
* plant
* flares
* dust
* materials handling

There are also gases that may affect air quality, such as NMHCs and potentially hazardous and harmful trace gases such as benzene (C6H6).

Secondary effects may occur downwind through reactive chemistry. Unlike greenhouse gases, many of the species mentioned here are regulated both for emissions and in ambient air.

==The importance of greenhouse gases==
Wide variations in the concentration of these gases occur over various timescales as a result of uptake by plants and variations in anthropogenic emissions. Variations can be seen for even minor changes in wind direction, depending on local conditions (for example, if a road exists nearby). Monitoring of gases over time therefore provides an understanding of the baseline, to which any changes induced by future activity can be compared quantitatively.

There are numerous sources of greenhouse gases, both natural and artificial. Natural variations of long-lived greenhouse gases, mainly CH4 and carbon dioxide CO2, relate to soil and deeper subsurface processes. These variations are augmented by fugitive emissions from vehicle exhausts, industry and landfill. Development of a shale gas exploration programme potentially adds further fugitive emissions from leaks, gas storage, processing operations, fracking fluid and flowback. It is important to establish the range of baseline concentrations of greenhouse gases and other air-quality parameters before any shale gas operations begin.

==The monitoring site==
The monitoring site was located close to the Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site at Preston New Road, Little Plumpton, Lancashire. A waterproof enclosure was installed with instrumentation to measure continuous concentrations of O3, PMs, NOx, CH4 and CO2, as well as wind speed and direction, air temperature, and relative humidity. In addition, air samples were taken to the University of York for analysis of a wider range of parameters.

==Data interpretation==
==Meteorology==
The wind statistics observed over an example measurement period (4 December 2014 to 14 March 2016) are shown in Figure 2 as a conventional wind rose. This type of illustration shows the number of times that the wind blows from various directions. The colour scale illustrates the corresponding proportion of winds in each direction for a range of surface wind speeds.

As expected at this site, as for any exposed site in the UK, the dominant wind direction is from the western quadrant (about 50 per cent of the time), consistent with the UK’s location as an island in the Atlantic mid-latitude storm track. This is also the direction from which the strongest winds are observed (red colours in Figure 2), typically coinciding with the passage of mid-latitude cyclones over the UK mainland.

[[Image:plumptonMet.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Wind rose showing wind speed and direction statistics for the period November 2014 to March 2016. The radius defines the percentage of time the wind in each of 12 wind direction cones (30° span), while the colour scale defines the wind speed (red colours indicate strong wind speeds over 6 ms-1 and yellow colours indicate lighter winds). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
This is important for understanding the local baseline. The position of the site near to the Blackpool shoreline means that winds bringing air from the Atlantic will typically carry relatively well-mixed and background airmasses to the measurement site. (In this context, a ‘background’ can be conceived to be an airmass relatively unaffected by local or regional pollution sources, broadly representative of the average composition of northern hemispheric air at the time.)

==Greenhouse gases==
Greenhouse gas concentrations were measured from December 2014. A time series of the data is shown in Figure 3. A general correlation between CO2 and CH4 can be seen over the measurement period. There are clear periods of background where CO2 and CH4 concentrations appear relatively flat at around 400 parts per million (ppm) and 2 ppm respectively. These periods coincide with westerly winds and represent the relatively unpolluted air from the Atlantic. The periods of generally enhanced CO2 and CH4 (between 400 and 450 ppm and 2 and 4 ppm, respectively) are most often with moderate easterly and southerly winds. The short-term events (spikes on the graph) coincide most often with light south easterly and northerly wind directions.

[[Image:plumptonCH4CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 3'''    Time series of carbon dioxide (grey) and methane (red) in units of ppm (December 2014 to March 2016). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
The elevated concentrations above the background represent a wide mix of pollutant sources upwind, both local and regional, that are being further investigated. It should be noted that the concentrations of greenhouse gases measured are not toxic or known to be hazardous to health.

Figure 4 shows a sample of the measured data in Figure 2 for CH4 and CO2 but for a 24-hour period. All measurements over a given hour of day for the dataset period are shown together. This gives an idea of when, during an average day, there were changes in concentration relative to the expected baseline. The bold line is the average for that hour of day and the shaded area is the 95 per cent confidence interval. The data shows that there are relative peaks in both the morning and afternoon, as is generally expected for these species.

[[Image:fig2a_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4a'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CH4. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:fig2b_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4b'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CO2. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Air quality==
The time series for O3, NO, NO2, NOx, PM1, PM2.5, PM4 and PM10 are shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7. The data indicates that there are times when the site is affected by higher levels of pollution in the form of NO, NO2 and PMs (spikes on the graphs). O3 shows elevated typical maritime concentrations from the west and is indicative of an aged air mass, broadly reflective of prevailing Atlantic ozone. The influence of the Atlantic air is also shown in the PM measurements, which are all enhanced when the wind is from the west as a result of maritime aerosols.

Local influence can also be observed as spikes on the graphs. Further investigation is being carried out but a road running close to the site may be a contributory factor.

[[Image:TimeSeriesOfOzoneConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 5'''    Time series of Ozone (O3) concentrations. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 6'''    TimeSeriesOfNOConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsYorks.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 7'''    TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Measurement statistics==
The concentration statistics for the range of parameters measured are shown in Table 1. The mean concentration of CH4 is slightly above the northern hemispheric seasonal average of about 1.9 ppm, while the CO2 site average is marginally enhanced relative to the hemispheric average (about 402 ppm). The concentration statistics for the other parameters represent only a limited dataset to date.

Table 1 Statistical metrics for air quality pollutants. Percentages refer to percentiles. LOD refers to measurements below the limit of detection of the instrument.

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
|-
|Compound
|10%
|25%
|33%
|Mean
|75%
|90%
|95%
|-
|CH4 (ppm)
|1.93
|1.94
|1.95
|2.22
|2.12
|2.68
|3.66
|-
|CO2 (ppb)
|399.13
|402.52
|403.74
|412.83
|418.16
|435.12
|447.34
|-
|O3 (ppb)
|11.37
|23.77
|27.43
|33.32
|38.85
|41.21
|42.73
|-
|NO (ppb)
|0.08
|0.19
|0.26
|0.54
|1.26
|3.17
|7.68
|-
|NO2 (ppb)
|LOD
|LOD
|0.13
|0.96
|4.65
|12.99
|18.93
|-
|NOx (ppb)
|LOD
|0.20
|0.59
|1.60
|5.72
|17.36
|26.15
|-
|PM1 (μg / m3)
|1.06
|1.82
|2.23
|3.01
|5.93
|12.38
|18.12
|-
|PM2.5 (μg / m3)
|1.92
|3.31
|4.04
|5.57
|9.40
|14.49
|19.59
|-
|PM4 (μg / m3)
|2.54
|4.47
|5.49
|7.66
|11.97
|17.64
|21.26
|-
|PM10 (μg / m3)
|3.14
|5.61
|6.73
|9.12
|13.90
|19.91
|23.79
|-
|PMtotal (μg / m3)
|3.69
|6.55
|7.80
|10.55
|15.87
|22.34
|26.43
|-
|Particle Count (particles/cm3)
|15.52
|22.70
|27.29
|41.86
|143.30
|369.60
|490.53
|}

==Non-methane hydrocarbons results==
Samples for hydrocarbon (C2 to C6) analysis were collected weekly in special canisters from both the Little Plumpton (Lancashire) and Kirby Misperton (Yorkshire) sites and returned to the WACL laboratory at the University of York’s [https://www.york.ac.uk/chemistry/research/wacl/ Wolfson Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratories.]

The plots in figures 8, 9 and 10 show the distribution of individual species (ethane, propane and benzene) at the Little Plumpton and Kirby Misperton sites, together with distributions from a site at Auchencorth Moss in Scotland and samples taken from air above BGS’s boreholes around Kirby Misperton. The dataset for hydrocarbons from 2016 is available on the [https://catalogue.ceda.ac.uk/uuid/4878d1fcd0694c07a0dc08ceaccae9e1/ BADC website archive.]

[[Image:figure8_boxplot (3).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 8'''    Box plots showing the distributions of ethane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure9_boxplot (2).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 9'''    Box plots showing the distributions of propane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure10_boxplot.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 10'''    Box plots showing the distributions of benzene from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.

Benzene annual mean concentration at Little Plumpton: 0.412 ppb; observed range: 0.046 to 2.4 ppb (n=26 samples over October 2015 to October 2016).

Note: EC Air Quality Directive limit value for benzene (annual mean) = 1.54 ppb. Observations to date indicate a mean baseline concentration around a factor of three lower than the EC directive limit value.</center>

[[category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Fylde, Lancashire]]

Air quality and greenhouse gases - Fylde

2026-10-21T12:08:22Z

Ajhil: /* Meteorology */

{{underconstruction}}
==Air quality and greenhouse gases==
The universities of York and Manchester together monitored air quality and greenhouse gases at the proposed Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site in the Fylde, Lancashire. The monitoring equipment for greenhouse gases was set up in December 2014 and for air quality in December 2015; as well as capturing meteorological information, they measured concentrations of:

* ozone (O3)
* particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM4, and PM10)
* nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2 and NOx)
* methane (CH4)
* non-methane hydrocarbons (NHMCs)
* hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
* carbon dioxide (CO2)

[[Image:airQualityLancashireSite.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1a'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:AirQualityMonitoringCabinet_3.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1b'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Rationale for monitoring==
In the context of shale gas exploration and production, atmospheric emissions have a number of potential effects. Emissions may (both separately and collectively) have implications for climate change, air quality, and public and occupational health.

==Public health==
These parameters concern direct primary emissions from infrastructure onsite such as PMs and NO2 from:

* generators
* traffic
* plant
* flares
* dust
* materials handling

There are also gases that may affect air quality, such as NMHCs and potentially hazardous and harmful trace gases such as benzene (C6H6).

Secondary effects may occur downwind through reactive chemistry. Unlike greenhouse gases, many of the species mentioned here are regulated both for emissions and in ambient air.

==The importance of greenhouse gases==
Wide variations in the concentration of these gases occur over various timescales as a result of uptake by plants and variations in anthropogenic emissions. Variations can be seen for even minor changes in wind direction, depending on local conditions (for example, if a road exists nearby). Monitoring of gases over time therefore provides an understanding of the baseline, to which any changes induced by future activity can be compared quantitatively.

There are numerous sources of greenhouse gases, both natural and artificial. Natural variations of long-lived greenhouse gases, mainly CH4 and carbon dioxide CO2, relate to soil and deeper subsurface processes. These variations are augmented by fugitive emissions from vehicle exhausts, industry and landfill. Development of a shale gas exploration programme potentially adds further fugitive emissions from leaks, gas storage, processing operations, fracking fluid and flowback. It is important to establish the range of baseline concentrations of greenhouse gases and other air-quality parameters before any shale gas operations begin.

==The monitoring site==
The monitoring site was located close to the Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site at Preston New Road, Little Plumpton, Lancashire. A waterproof enclosure was installed with instrumentation to measure continuous concentrations of O3, PMs, NOx, CH4 and CO2, as well as wind speed and direction, air temperature, and relative humidity. In addition, air samples were taken to the University of York for analysis of a wider range of parameters.

==Data interpretation==
==Meteorology==
The wind statistics observed over an example measurement period (4 December 2014 to 14 March 2016) are shown in Figure 2 as a conventional wind rose. This type of illustration shows the number of times that the wind blows from various directions. The colour scale illustrates the corresponding proportion of winds in each direction for a range of surface wind speeds.

As expected at this site, as for any exposed site in the UK, the dominant wind direction is from the western quadrant (about 50 per cent of the time), consistent with the UK’s location as an island in the Atlantic mid-latitude storm track. This is also the direction from which the strongest winds are observed (red colours in Figure 2), typically coinciding with the passage of mid-latitude cyclones over the UK mainland.

[[Image:plumptonMet.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Wind rose showing wind speed and direction statistics for the period November 2014 to March 2016. The radius defines the percentage of time the wind in each of 12 wind direction cones (30° span), while the colour scale defines the wind speed (red colours indicate strong wind speeds over 6 ms-1 and yellow colours indicate lighter winds). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
This is important for understanding the local baseline. The position of the site near to the Blackpool shoreline means that winds bringing air from the Atlantic will typically carry relatively well-mixed and background airmasses to the measurement site. (In this context, a ‘background’ can be conceived to be an airmass relatively unaffected by local or regional pollution sources, broadly representative of the average composition of northern hemispheric air at the time.)

==Greenhouse gases==
Greenhouse gas concentrations were measured from December 2014. A time series of the data is shown in Figure 3. A general correlation between CO2 and CH4 can be seen over the measurement period. There are clear periods of background where CO2 and CH4 concentrations appear relatively flat at around 400 parts per million (ppm) and 2 ppm respectively. These periods coincide with westerly winds and represent the relatively unpolluted air from the Atlantic. The periods of generally enhanced CO2 and CH4 (between 400 and 450 ppm and 2 and 4 ppm, respectively) are most often with moderate easterly and southerly winds. The short-term events (spikes on the graph) coincide most often with light south easterly and northerly wind directions.

[[Image:plumptonCH4CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 3'''    Time series of carbon dioxide (grey) and methane (red) in units of ppm (December 2014 to March 2016). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
The elevated concentrations above the background represent a wide mix of pollutant sources upwind, both local and regional, that are being further investigated. It should be noted that the concentrations of greenhouse gases measured are not toxic or known to be hazardous to health.

Figure 4 shows a sample of the measured data in Figure 2 for CH4 and CO2 but for a 24-hour period. All measurements over a given hour of day for the dataset period are shown together. This gives an idea of when, during an average day, there were changes in concentration relative to the expected baseline. The bold line is the average for that hour of day and the shaded area is the 95 per cent confidence interval. The data shows that there are relative peaks in both the morning and afternoon, as is generally expected for these species.

[[Image:fig2a_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4a'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CH4. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:fig2b_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4b'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CO2. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Air quality==
The time series for O3, NO, NO2, NOx, PM1, PM2.5, PM4 and PM10 are shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7. The data indicates that there are times when the site is affected by higher levels of pollution in the form of NO, NO2 and PMs (spikes on the graphs). O3 shows elevated typical maritime concentrations from the west and is indicative of an aged air mass, broadly reflective of prevailing Atlantic ozone. The influence of the Atlantic air is also shown in the PM measurements, which are all enhanced when the wind is from the west as a result of maritime aerosols.

Local influence can also be observed as spikes on the graphs. Further investigation is being carried out but a road running close to the site may be a contributory factor.

[[Image:TimeSeriesOfOzoneConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 5'''    Time series of Ozone (O3) concentrations. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 6'''    TimeSeriesOfNOConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsYorks.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 7'''    TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Measurement statistics==
The concentration statistics for the range of parameters measured are shown in Table 1. The mean concentration of CH4 is slightly above the northern hemispheric seasonal average of about 1.9 ppm, while the CO2 site average is marginally enhanced relative to the hemispheric average (about 402 ppm). The concentration statistics for the other parameters represent only a limited dataset to date.

Table 1 Statistical metrics for air quality pollutants. Percentages refer to percentiles. LOD refers to measurements below the limit of detection of the instrument.

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
|-
|Compound
|10%
|25%
|33%
|Mean
|75%
|90%
|95%
|-
|CH4 (ppm)
|1.93
|1.94
|1.95
|2.22
|2.12
|2.68
|3.66
|-
|CO2 (ppb)
|399.13
|402.52
|403.74
|412.83
|418.16
|435.12
|447.34
|-
|O3 (ppb)
|11.37
|23.77
|27.43
|33.32
|38.85
|41.21
|42.73
|-
|NO (ppb)
|0.08
|0.19
|0.26
|0.54
|1.26
|3.17
|7.68
|-
|NO2 (ppb)
|LOD
|LOD
|0.13
|0.96
|4.65
|12.99
|18.93
|-
|NOx (ppb)
|LOD
|0.20
|0.59
|1.60
|5.72
|17.36
|26.15
|-
|PM1 (μg / m3)
|1.06
|1.82
|2.23
|3.01
|5.93
|12.38
|18.12
|-
|PM2.5 (μg / m3)
|1.92
|3.31
|4.04
|5.57
|9.40
|14.49
|19.59
|-
|PM4 (μg / m3)
|2.54
|4.47
|5.49
|7.66
|11.97
|17.64
|21.26
|-
|PM10 (μg / m3)
|3.14
|5.61
|6.73
|9.12
|13.90
|19.91
|23.79
|-
|PMtotal (μg / m3)
|3.69
|6.55
|7.80
|10.55
|15.87
|22.34
|26.43
|-
|Particle Count (particles/cm3)
|15.52
|22.70
|27.29
|41.86
|143.30
|369.60
|490.53
|}

==Non-methane hydrocarbons results==
Samples for hydrocarbon (C2 to C6) analysis were collected weekly in special canisters from both the Little Plumpton (Lancashire) and Kirby Misperton (Yorkshire) sites and returned to the WACL laboratory at the University of York’s [https://www.york.ac.uk/chemistry/research/wacl/ Wolfson Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratories.]

The plots in figures 8, 9 and 10 show the distribution of individual species (ethane, propane and benzene) at the Little Plumpton and Kirby Misperton sites, together with distributions from a site at Auchencorth Moss in Scotland and samples taken from air above BGS’s boreholes around Kirby Misperton. The dataset for hydrocarbons from 2016 is available on the [https://catalogue.ceda.ac.uk/uuid/4878d1fcd0694c07a0dc08ceaccae9e1/ BADC website archive.]

[[Image:figure8_boxplot (3).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 8'''    Box plots showing the distributions of ethane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure9_boxplot (2).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 9'''    Box plots showing the distributions of propane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure10_boxplot.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 10'''    Box plots showing the distributions of benzene from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.

Benzene annual mean concentration at Little Plumpton: 0.412 ppb; observed range: 0.046 to 2.4 ppb (n=26 samples over October 2015 to October 2016).

Note: EC Air Quality Directive limit value for benzene (annual mean) = 1.54 ppb. Observations to date indicate a mean baseline concentration around a factor of three lower than the EC directive limit value.</center>

[[category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Fylde, Lancashire]]

Air quality and greenhouse gases - Fylde

2026-10-21T12:08:12Z

Ajhil: /* Meteorology */

{{underconstruction}}
==Air quality and greenhouse gases==
The universities of York and Manchester together monitored air quality and greenhouse gases at the proposed Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site in the Fylde, Lancashire. The monitoring equipment for greenhouse gases was set up in December 2014 and for air quality in December 2015; as well as capturing meteorological information, they measured concentrations of:

* ozone (O3)
* particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM4, and PM10)
* nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2 and NOx)
* methane (CH4)
* non-methane hydrocarbons (NHMCs)
* hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
* carbon dioxide (CO2)

[[Image:airQualityLancashireSite.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1a'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:AirQualityMonitoringCabinet_3.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1b'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Rationale for monitoring==
In the context of shale gas exploration and production, atmospheric emissions have a number of potential effects. Emissions may (both separately and collectively) have implications for climate change, air quality, and public and occupational health.

==Public health==
These parameters concern direct primary emissions from infrastructure onsite such as PMs and NO2 from:

* generators
* traffic
* plant
* flares
* dust
* materials handling

There are also gases that may affect air quality, such as NMHCs and potentially hazardous and harmful trace gases such as benzene (C6H6).

Secondary effects may occur downwind through reactive chemistry. Unlike greenhouse gases, many of the species mentioned here are regulated both for emissions and in ambient air.

==The importance of greenhouse gases==
Wide variations in the concentration of these gases occur over various timescales as a result of uptake by plants and variations in anthropogenic emissions. Variations can be seen for even minor changes in wind direction, depending on local conditions (for example, if a road exists nearby). Monitoring of gases over time therefore provides an understanding of the baseline, to which any changes induced by future activity can be compared quantitatively.

There are numerous sources of greenhouse gases, both natural and artificial. Natural variations of long-lived greenhouse gases, mainly CH4 and carbon dioxide CO2, relate to soil and deeper subsurface processes. These variations are augmented by fugitive emissions from vehicle exhausts, industry and landfill. Development of a shale gas exploration programme potentially adds further fugitive emissions from leaks, gas storage, processing operations, fracking fluid and flowback. It is important to establish the range of baseline concentrations of greenhouse gases and other air-quality parameters before any shale gas operations begin.

==The monitoring site==
The monitoring site was located close to the Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site at Preston New Road, Little Plumpton, Lancashire. A waterproof enclosure was installed with instrumentation to measure continuous concentrations of O3, PMs, NOx, CH4 and CO2, as well as wind speed and direction, air temperature, and relative humidity. In addition, air samples were taken to the University of York for analysis of a wider range of parameters.

==Data interpretation==
==Meteorology==
The wind statistics observed over an example measurement period (4 December 2014 to 14 March 2016) are shown in Figure 2 as a conventional wind rose. This type of illustration shows the number of times that the wind blows from various directions. The colour scale illustrates the corresponding proportion of winds in each direction for a range of surface wind speeds.

As expected at this site, as for any exposed site in the UK, the dominant wind direction is from the western quadrant (about 50 per cent of the time), consistent with the UK’s location as an island in the Atlantic mid-latitude storm track. This is also the direction from which the strongest winds are observed (red colours in Figure 2), typically coinciding with the passage of mid-latitude cyclones over the UK mainland.

[[Image:plumptonMet.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Wind rose showing wind speed and direction statistics for the period November 2014 to March 2016. The radius defines the percentage of time the wind in each of 12 wind direction cones (30° span), while the colour scale defines the wind speed (red colours indicate strong wind speeds over 6 ms-1 and yellow colours indicate lighter winds). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
This is important for understanding the local baseline. The position of the site near to the Blackpool shoreline means that winds bringing air from the Atlantic will typically carry relatively well-mixed and background airmasses to the measurement site. (In this context, a ‘background’ can be conceived to be an airmass relatively unaffected by local or regional pollution sources, broadly representative of the average composition of northern hemispheric air at the time.)

==Greenhouse gases==
Greenhouse gas concentrations were measured from December 2014. A time series of the data is shown in Figure 3. A general correlation between CO2 and CH4 can be seen over the measurement period. There are clear periods of background where CO2 and CH4 concentrations appear relatively flat at around 400 parts per million (ppm) and 2 ppm respectively. These periods coincide with westerly winds and represent the relatively unpolluted air from the Atlantic. The periods of generally enhanced CO2 and CH4 (between 400 and 450 ppm and 2 and 4 ppm, respectively) are most often with moderate easterly and southerly winds. The short-term events (spikes on the graph) coincide most often with light south easterly and northerly wind directions.

[[Image:plumptonCH4CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 3'''    Time series of carbon dioxide (grey) and methane (red) in units of ppm (December 2014 to March 2016). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
The elevated concentrations above the background represent a wide mix of pollutant sources upwind, both local and regional, that are being further investigated. It should be noted that the concentrations of greenhouse gases measured are not toxic or known to be hazardous to health.

Figure 4 shows a sample of the measured data in Figure 2 for CH4 and CO2 but for a 24-hour period. All measurements over a given hour of day for the dataset period are shown together. This gives an idea of when, during an average day, there were changes in concentration relative to the expected baseline. The bold line is the average for that hour of day and the shaded area is the 95 per cent confidence interval. The data shows that there are relative peaks in both the morning and afternoon, as is generally expected for these species.

[[Image:fig2a_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4a'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CH4. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:fig2b_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4b'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CO2. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Air quality==
The time series for O3, NO, NO2, NOx, PM1, PM2.5, PM4 and PM10 are shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7. The data indicates that there are times when the site is affected by higher levels of pollution in the form of NO, NO2 and PMs (spikes on the graphs). O3 shows elevated typical maritime concentrations from the west and is indicative of an aged air mass, broadly reflective of prevailing Atlantic ozone. The influence of the Atlantic air is also shown in the PM measurements, which are all enhanced when the wind is from the west as a result of maritime aerosols.

Local influence can also be observed as spikes on the graphs. Further investigation is being carried out but a road running close to the site may be a contributory factor.

[[Image:TimeSeriesOfOzoneConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 5'''    Time series of Ozone (O3) concentrations. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 6'''    TimeSeriesOfNOConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsYorks.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 7'''    TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Measurement statistics==
The concentration statistics for the range of parameters measured are shown in Table 1. The mean concentration of CH4 is slightly above the northern hemispheric seasonal average of about 1.9 ppm, while the CO2 site average is marginally enhanced relative to the hemispheric average (about 402 ppm). The concentration statistics for the other parameters represent only a limited dataset to date.

Table 1 Statistical metrics for air quality pollutants. Percentages refer to percentiles. LOD refers to measurements below the limit of detection of the instrument.

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
|-
|Compound
|10%
|25%
|33%
|Mean
|75%
|90%
|95%
|-
|CH4 (ppm)
|1.93
|1.94
|1.95
|2.22
|2.12
|2.68
|3.66
|-
|CO2 (ppb)
|399.13
|402.52
|403.74
|412.83
|418.16
|435.12
|447.34
|-
|O3 (ppb)
|11.37
|23.77
|27.43
|33.32
|38.85
|41.21
|42.73
|-
|NO (ppb)
|0.08
|0.19
|0.26
|0.54
|1.26
|3.17
|7.68
|-
|NO2 (ppb)
|LOD
|LOD
|0.13
|0.96
|4.65
|12.99
|18.93
|-
|NOx (ppb)
|LOD
|0.20
|0.59
|1.60
|5.72
|17.36
|26.15
|-
|PM1 (μg / m3)
|1.06
|1.82
|2.23
|3.01
|5.93
|12.38
|18.12
|-
|PM2.5 (μg / m3)
|1.92
|3.31
|4.04
|5.57
|9.40
|14.49
|19.59
|-
|PM4 (μg / m3)
|2.54
|4.47
|5.49
|7.66
|11.97
|17.64
|21.26
|-
|PM10 (μg / m3)
|3.14
|5.61
|6.73
|9.12
|13.90
|19.91
|23.79
|-
|PMtotal (μg / m3)
|3.69
|6.55
|7.80
|10.55
|15.87
|22.34
|26.43
|-
|Particle Count (particles/cm3)
|15.52
|22.70
|27.29
|41.86
|143.30
|369.60
|490.53
|}

==Non-methane hydrocarbons results==
Samples for hydrocarbon (C2 to C6) analysis were collected weekly in special canisters from both the Little Plumpton (Lancashire) and Kirby Misperton (Yorkshire) sites and returned to the WACL laboratory at the University of York’s [https://www.york.ac.uk/chemistry/research/wacl/ Wolfson Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratories.]

The plots in figures 8, 9 and 10 show the distribution of individual species (ethane, propane and benzene) at the Little Plumpton and Kirby Misperton sites, together with distributions from a site at Auchencorth Moss in Scotland and samples taken from air above BGS’s boreholes around Kirby Misperton. The dataset for hydrocarbons from 2016 is available on the [https://catalogue.ceda.ac.uk/uuid/4878d1fcd0694c07a0dc08ceaccae9e1/ BADC website archive.]

[[Image:figure8_boxplot (3).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 8'''    Box plots showing the distributions of ethane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure9_boxplot (2).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 9'''    Box plots showing the distributions of propane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure10_boxplot.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 10'''    Box plots showing the distributions of benzene from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.

Benzene annual mean concentration at Little Plumpton: 0.412 ppb; observed range: 0.046 to 2.4 ppb (n=26 samples over October 2015 to October 2016).

Note: EC Air Quality Directive limit value for benzene (annual mean) = 1.54 ppb. Observations to date indicate a mean baseline concentration around a factor of three lower than the EC directive limit value.</center>

[[category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Fylde, Lancashire]]

Air quality and greenhouse gases - Fylde

2026-10-21T12:02:29Z

Ajhil: /* Air quality */

{{underconstruction}}
==Air quality and greenhouse gases==
The universities of York and Manchester together monitored air quality and greenhouse gases at the proposed Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site in the Fylde, Lancashire. The monitoring equipment for greenhouse gases was set up in December 2014 and for air quality in December 2015; as well as capturing meteorological information, they measured concentrations of:

* ozone (O3)
* particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM4, and PM10)
* nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2 and NOx)
* methane (CH4)
* non-methane hydrocarbons (NHMCs)
* hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
* carbon dioxide (CO2)

[[Image:airQualityLancashireSite.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1a'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:AirQualityMonitoringCabinet_3.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1b'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Rationale for monitoring==
In the context of shale gas exploration and production, atmospheric emissions have a number of potential effects. Emissions may (both separately and collectively) have implications for climate change, air quality, and public and occupational health.

==Public health==
These parameters concern direct primary emissions from infrastructure onsite such as PMs and NO2 from:

* generators
* traffic
* plant
* flares
* dust
* materials handling

There are also gases that may affect air quality, such as NMHCs and potentially hazardous and harmful trace gases such as benzene (C6H6).

Secondary effects may occur downwind through reactive chemistry. Unlike greenhouse gases, many of the species mentioned here are regulated both for emissions and in ambient air.

==The importance of greenhouse gases==
Wide variations in the concentration of these gases occur over various timescales as a result of uptake by plants and variations in anthropogenic emissions. Variations can be seen for even minor changes in wind direction, depending on local conditions (for example, if a road exists nearby). Monitoring of gases over time therefore provides an understanding of the baseline, to which any changes induced by future activity can be compared quantitatively.

There are numerous sources of greenhouse gases, both natural and artificial. Natural variations of long-lived greenhouse gases, mainly CH4 and carbon dioxide CO2, relate to soil and deeper subsurface processes. These variations are augmented by fugitive emissions from vehicle exhausts, industry and landfill. Development of a shale gas exploration programme potentially adds further fugitive emissions from leaks, gas storage, processing operations, fracking fluid and flowback. It is important to establish the range of baseline concentrations of greenhouse gases and other air-quality parameters before any shale gas operations begin.

==The monitoring site==
The monitoring site was located close to the Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site at Preston New Road, Little Plumpton, Lancashire. A waterproof enclosure was installed with instrumentation to measure continuous concentrations of O3, PMs, NOx, CH4 and CO2, as well as wind speed and direction, air temperature, and relative humidity. In addition, air samples were taken to the University of York for analysis of a wider range of parameters.

==Data interpretation==
==Meteorology==
The wind statistics observed over an example measurement period (4 December 2014 to 14 March 2016) are shown in Figure 2 as a conventional wind rose. This type of illustration shows the number of times that the wind blows from various directions. The colour scale illustrates the corresponding proportion of winds in each direction for a range of surface wind speeds.

As expected at this site, as for any exposed site in the UK, the dominant wind direction is from the western quadrant (about 50 per cent of the time), consistent with the UK’s location as an island in the Atlantic mid-latitude storm track. This is also the direction from which the strongest winds are observed (red colours in Figure 2), typically coinciding with the passage of mid-latitude cyclones over the UK mainland.

[[Image:plumptonMet.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Wind rose showing wind speed and direction statistics for the period November 2014 to March 2016. The radius defines the percentage of time the wind in each of 12 wind direction cones (30° span), while the colour scale defines the wind speed (red colours indicate strong wind speeds over 6 ms-1 and yellow colours indicate lighter winds). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
This is important for understanding the local baseline. The position of the site near to the Blackpool shoreline means that winds bringing air from the Atlantic will typically carry relatively well-mixed and background airmasses to the measurement site. (In this context, a ‘background’ can be conceived to be an airmass relatively unaffected by local or regional pollution sources, broadly representative of the average composition of northern hemispheric air at the time.)

==Greenhouse gases==
Greenhouse gas concentrations were measured from December 2014. A time series of the data is shown in Figure 3. A general correlation between CO2 and CH4 can be seen over the measurement period. There are clear periods of background where CO2 and CH4 concentrations appear relatively flat at around 400 parts per million (ppm) and 2 ppm respectively. These periods coincide with westerly winds and represent the relatively unpolluted air from the Atlantic. The periods of generally enhanced CO2 and CH4 (between 400 and 450 ppm and 2 and 4 ppm, respectively) are most often with moderate easterly and southerly winds. The short-term events (spikes on the graph) coincide most often with light south easterly and northerly wind directions.

[[Image:plumptonCH4CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 3'''    Time series of carbon dioxide (grey) and methane (red) in units of ppm (December 2014 to March 2016). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
The elevated concentrations above the background represent a wide mix of pollutant sources upwind, both local and regional, that are being further investigated. It should be noted that the concentrations of greenhouse gases measured are not toxic or known to be hazardous to health.

Figure 4 shows a sample of the measured data in Figure 2 for CH4 and CO2 but for a 24-hour period. All measurements over a given hour of day for the dataset period are shown together. This gives an idea of when, during an average day, there were changes in concentration relative to the expected baseline. The bold line is the average for that hour of day and the shaded area is the 95 per cent confidence interval. The data shows that there are relative peaks in both the morning and afternoon, as is generally expected for these species.

[[Image:fig2a_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4a'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CH4. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:fig2b_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4b'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CO2. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Air quality==
The time series for O3, NO, NO2, NOx, PM1, PM2.5, PM4 and PM10 are shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7. The data indicates that there are times when the site is affected by higher levels of pollution in the form of NO, NO2 and PMs (spikes on the graphs). O3 shows elevated typical maritime concentrations from the west and is indicative of an aged air mass, broadly reflective of prevailing Atlantic ozone. The influence of the Atlantic air is also shown in the PM measurements, which are all enhanced when the wind is from the west as a result of maritime aerosols.

Local influence can also be observed as spikes on the graphs. Further investigation is being carried out but a road running close to the site may be a contributory factor.

[[Image:TimeSeriesOfOzoneConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 5'''    Time series of Ozone (O3) concentrations. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 6'''    TimeSeriesOfNOConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsYorks.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 7'''    TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Measurement statistics==
The concentration statistics for the range of parameters measured are shown in Table 1. The mean concentration of CH4 is slightly above the northern hemispheric seasonal average of about 1.9 ppm, while the CO2 site average is marginally enhanced relative to the hemispheric average (about 402 ppm). The concentration statistics for the other parameters represent only a limited dataset to date.

Table 1 Statistical metrics for air quality pollutants. Percentages refer to percentiles. LOD refers to measurements below the limit of detection of the instrument.

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
|-
|Compound
|10%
|25%
|33%
|Mean
|75%
|90%
|95%
|-
|CH4 (ppm)
|1.93
|1.94
|1.95
|2.22
|2.12
|2.68
|3.66
|-
|CO2 (ppb)
|399.13
|402.52
|403.74
|412.83
|418.16
|435.12
|447.34
|-
|O3 (ppb)
|11.37
|23.77
|27.43
|33.32
|38.85
|41.21
|42.73
|-
|NO (ppb)
|0.08
|0.19
|0.26
|0.54
|1.26
|3.17
|7.68
|-
|NO2 (ppb)
|LOD
|LOD
|0.13
|0.96
|4.65
|12.99
|18.93
|-
|NOx (ppb)
|LOD
|0.20
|0.59
|1.60
|5.72
|17.36
|26.15
|-
|PM1 (μg / m3)
|1.06
|1.82
|2.23
|3.01
|5.93
|12.38
|18.12
|-
|PM2.5 (μg / m3)
|1.92
|3.31
|4.04
|5.57
|9.40
|14.49
|19.59
|-
|PM4 (μg / m3)
|2.54
|4.47
|5.49
|7.66
|11.97
|17.64
|21.26
|-
|PM10 (μg / m3)
|3.14
|5.61
|6.73
|9.12
|13.90
|19.91
|23.79
|-
|PMtotal (μg / m3)
|3.69
|6.55
|7.80
|10.55
|15.87
|22.34
|26.43
|-
|Particle Count (particles/cm3)
|15.52
|22.70
|27.29
|41.86
|143.30
|369.60
|490.53
|}

==Non-methane hydrocarbons results==
Samples for hydrocarbon (C2 to C6) analysis were collected weekly in special canisters from both the Little Plumpton (Lancashire) and Kirby Misperton (Yorkshire) sites and returned to the WACL laboratory at the University of York’s [https://www.york.ac.uk/chemistry/research/wacl/ Wolfson Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratories.]

The plots in figures 8, 9 and 10 show the distribution of individual species (ethane, propane and benzene) at the Little Plumpton and Kirby Misperton sites, together with distributions from a site at Auchencorth Moss in Scotland and samples taken from air above BGS’s boreholes around Kirby Misperton. The dataset for hydrocarbons from 2016 is available on the [https://catalogue.ceda.ac.uk/uuid/4878d1fcd0694c07a0dc08ceaccae9e1/ BADC website archive.]

[[Image:figure8_boxplot (3).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 8'''    Box plots showing the distributions of ethane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure9_boxplot (2).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 9'''    Box plots showing the distributions of propane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure10_boxplot.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 10'''    Box plots showing the distributions of benzene from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.

Benzene annual mean concentration at Little Plumpton: 0.412 ppb; observed range: 0.046 to 2.4 ppb (n=26 samples over October 2015 to October 2016).

Note: EC Air Quality Directive limit value for benzene (annual mean) = 1.54 ppb. Observations to date indicate a mean baseline concentration around a factor of three lower than the EC directive limit value.</center>

[[category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Fylde, Lancashire]]

Air quality and greenhouse gases - Fylde

2026-10-21T12:01:23Z

Ajhil: /* Greenhouse gases */

{{underconstruction}}
==Air quality and greenhouse gases==
The universities of York and Manchester together monitored air quality and greenhouse gases at the proposed Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site in the Fylde, Lancashire. The monitoring equipment for greenhouse gases was set up in December 2014 and for air quality in December 2015; as well as capturing meteorological information, they measured concentrations of:

* ozone (O3)
* particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM4, and PM10)
* nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2 and NOx)
* methane (CH4)
* non-methane hydrocarbons (NHMCs)
* hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
* carbon dioxide (CO2)

[[Image:airQualityLancashireSite.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1a'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:AirQualityMonitoringCabinet_3.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1b'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Rationale for monitoring==
In the context of shale gas exploration and production, atmospheric emissions have a number of potential effects. Emissions may (both separately and collectively) have implications for climate change, air quality, and public and occupational health.

==Public health==
These parameters concern direct primary emissions from infrastructure onsite such as PMs and NO2 from:

* generators
* traffic
* plant
* flares
* dust
* materials handling

There are also gases that may affect air quality, such as NMHCs and potentially hazardous and harmful trace gases such as benzene (C6H6).

Secondary effects may occur downwind through reactive chemistry. Unlike greenhouse gases, many of the species mentioned here are regulated both for emissions and in ambient air.

==The importance of greenhouse gases==
Wide variations in the concentration of these gases occur over various timescales as a result of uptake by plants and variations in anthropogenic emissions. Variations can be seen for even minor changes in wind direction, depending on local conditions (for example, if a road exists nearby). Monitoring of gases over time therefore provides an understanding of the baseline, to which any changes induced by future activity can be compared quantitatively.

There are numerous sources of greenhouse gases, both natural and artificial. Natural variations of long-lived greenhouse gases, mainly CH4 and carbon dioxide CO2, relate to soil and deeper subsurface processes. These variations are augmented by fugitive emissions from vehicle exhausts, industry and landfill. Development of a shale gas exploration programme potentially adds further fugitive emissions from leaks, gas storage, processing operations, fracking fluid and flowback. It is important to establish the range of baseline concentrations of greenhouse gases and other air-quality parameters before any shale gas operations begin.

==The monitoring site==
The monitoring site was located close to the Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site at Preston New Road, Little Plumpton, Lancashire. A waterproof enclosure was installed with instrumentation to measure continuous concentrations of O3, PMs, NOx, CH4 and CO2, as well as wind speed and direction, air temperature, and relative humidity. In addition, air samples were taken to the University of York for analysis of a wider range of parameters.

==Data interpretation==
==Meteorology==
The wind statistics observed over an example measurement period (4 December 2014 to 14 March 2016) are shown in Figure 2 as a conventional wind rose. This type of illustration shows the number of times that the wind blows from various directions. The colour scale illustrates the corresponding proportion of winds in each direction for a range of surface wind speeds.

As expected at this site, as for any exposed site in the UK, the dominant wind direction is from the western quadrant (about 50 per cent of the time), consistent with the UK’s location as an island in the Atlantic mid-latitude storm track. This is also the direction from which the strongest winds are observed (red colours in Figure 2), typically coinciding with the passage of mid-latitude cyclones over the UK mainland.

[[Image:plumptonMet.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Wind rose showing wind speed and direction statistics for the period November 2014 to March 2016. The radius defines the percentage of time the wind in each of 12 wind direction cones (30° span), while the colour scale defines the wind speed (red colours indicate strong wind speeds over 6 ms-1 and yellow colours indicate lighter winds). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
This is important for understanding the local baseline. The position of the site near to the Blackpool shoreline means that winds bringing air from the Atlantic will typically carry relatively well-mixed and background airmasses to the measurement site. (In this context, a ‘background’ can be conceived to be an airmass relatively unaffected by local or regional pollution sources, broadly representative of the average composition of northern hemispheric air at the time.)

==Greenhouse gases==
Greenhouse gas concentrations were measured from December 2014. A time series of the data is shown in Figure 3. A general correlation between CO2 and CH4 can be seen over the measurement period. There are clear periods of background where CO2 and CH4 concentrations appear relatively flat at around 400 parts per million (ppm) and 2 ppm respectively. These periods coincide with westerly winds and represent the relatively unpolluted air from the Atlantic. The periods of generally enhanced CO2 and CH4 (between 400 and 450 ppm and 2 and 4 ppm, respectively) are most often with moderate easterly and southerly winds. The short-term events (spikes on the graph) coincide most often with light south easterly and northerly wind directions.

[[Image:plumptonCH4CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 3'''    Time series of carbon dioxide (grey) and methane (red) in units of ppm (December 2014 to March 2016). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
The elevated concentrations above the background represent a wide mix of pollutant sources upwind, both local and regional, that are being further investigated. It should be noted that the concentrations of greenhouse gases measured are not toxic or known to be hazardous to health.

Figure 4 shows a sample of the measured data in Figure 2 for CH4 and CO2 but for a 24-hour period. All measurements over a given hour of day for the dataset period are shown together. This gives an idea of when, during an average day, there were changes in concentration relative to the expected baseline. The bold line is the average for that hour of day and the shaded area is the 95 per cent confidence interval. The data shows that there are relative peaks in both the morning and afternoon, as is generally expected for these species.

[[Image:fig2a_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4a'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CH4. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:fig2b_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4b'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CO2. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Air quality==
The time series for O3, NO, NO2, NOx, PM1, PM2.5, PM4 and PM10 are shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7. The data indicates that there are times when the site is affected by higher levels of pollution in the form of NO, NO2 and PMs (spikes on the graphs). O3 shows elevated typical maritime concentrations from the west and is indicative of an aged air mass, broadly reflective of prevailing Atlantic ozone. The influence of the Atlantic air is also shown in the PM measurements, which are all enhanced when the wind is from the west as a result of maritime aerosols.

Local influence can also be observed as spikes on the graphs. Further investigation is being carried out but a road running close to the site may be a contributory factor.

[[Image:TimeSeriesOfOzoneConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 5'''    Time series of Ozone (O3) concentrations. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 6'''    TimeSeriesOfNOConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsYorks.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 7'''    TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Measurement statistics==
The concentration statistics for the range of parameters measured are shown in Table 1. The mean concentration of CH4 is slightly above the northern hemispheric seasonal average of about 1.9 ppm, while the CO2 site average is marginally enhanced relative to the hemispheric average (about 402 ppm). The concentration statistics for the other parameters represent only a limited dataset to date.

Table 1 Statistical metrics for air quality pollutants. Percentages refer to percentiles. LOD refers to measurements below the limit of detection of the instrument.

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
|-
|Compound
|10%
|25%
|33%
|Mean
|75%
|90%
|95%
|-
|CH4 (ppm)
|1.93
|1.94
|1.95
|2.22
|2.12
|2.68
|3.66
|-
|CO2 (ppb)
|399.13
|402.52
|403.74
|412.83
|418.16
|435.12
|447.34
|-
|O3 (ppb)
|11.37
|23.77
|27.43
|33.32
|38.85
|41.21
|42.73
|-
|NO (ppb)
|0.08
|0.19
|0.26
|0.54
|1.26
|3.17
|7.68
|-
|NO2 (ppb)
|LOD
|LOD
|0.13
|0.96
|4.65
|12.99
|18.93
|-
|NOx (ppb)
|LOD
|0.20
|0.59
|1.60
|5.72
|17.36
|26.15
|-
|PM1 (μg / m3)
|1.06
|1.82
|2.23
|3.01
|5.93
|12.38
|18.12
|-
|PM2.5 (μg / m3)
|1.92
|3.31
|4.04
|5.57
|9.40
|14.49
|19.59
|-
|PM4 (μg / m3)
|2.54
|4.47
|5.49
|7.66
|11.97
|17.64
|21.26
|-
|PM10 (μg / m3)
|3.14
|5.61
|6.73
|9.12
|13.90
|19.91
|23.79
|-
|PMtotal (μg / m3)
|3.69
|6.55
|7.80
|10.55
|15.87
|22.34
|26.43
|-
|Particle Count (particles/cm3)
|15.52
|22.70
|27.29
|41.86
|143.30
|369.60
|490.53
|}

==Non-methane hydrocarbons results==
Samples for hydrocarbon (C2 to C6) analysis were collected weekly in special canisters from both the Little Plumpton (Lancashire) and Kirby Misperton (Yorkshire) sites and returned to the WACL laboratory at the University of York’s [https://www.york.ac.uk/chemistry/research/wacl/ Wolfson Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratories.]

The plots in figures 8, 9 and 10 show the distribution of individual species (ethane, propane and benzene) at the Little Plumpton and Kirby Misperton sites, together with distributions from a site at Auchencorth Moss in Scotland and samples taken from air above BGS’s boreholes around Kirby Misperton. The dataset for hydrocarbons from 2016 is available on the [https://catalogue.ceda.ac.uk/uuid/4878d1fcd0694c07a0dc08ceaccae9e1/ BADC website archive.]

[[Image:figure8_boxplot (3).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 8'''    Box plots showing the distributions of ethane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure9_boxplot (2).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 9'''    Box plots showing the distributions of propane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure10_boxplot.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 10'''    Box plots showing the distributions of benzene from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.

Benzene annual mean concentration at Little Plumpton: 0.412 ppb; observed range: 0.046 to 2.4 ppb (n=26 samples over October 2015 to October 2016).

Note: EC Air Quality Directive limit value for benzene (annual mean) = 1.54 ppb. Observations to date indicate a mean baseline concentration around a factor of three lower than the EC directive limit value.</center>

[[category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Fylde, Lancashire]]

Air quality and greenhouse gases - Fylde

2026-10-21T12:01:05Z

Ajhil: /* Greenhouse gases */

{{underconstruction}}
==Air quality and greenhouse gases==
The universities of York and Manchester together monitored air quality and greenhouse gases at the proposed Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site in the Fylde, Lancashire. The monitoring equipment for greenhouse gases was set up in December 2014 and for air quality in December 2015; as well as capturing meteorological information, they measured concentrations of:

* ozone (O3)
* particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM4, and PM10)
* nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2 and NOx)
* methane (CH4)
* non-methane hydrocarbons (NHMCs)
* hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
* carbon dioxide (CO2)

[[Image:airQualityLancashireSite.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1a'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:AirQualityMonitoringCabinet_3.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1b'''    Air quality monitoring equipment at the Lancashire hydraulic fracturing site. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Rationale for monitoring==
In the context of shale gas exploration and production, atmospheric emissions have a number of potential effects. Emissions may (both separately and collectively) have implications for climate change, air quality, and public and occupational health.

==Public health==
These parameters concern direct primary emissions from infrastructure onsite such as PMs and NO2 from:

* generators
* traffic
* plant
* flares
* dust
* materials handling

There are also gases that may affect air quality, such as NMHCs and potentially hazardous and harmful trace gases such as benzene (C6H6).

Secondary effects may occur downwind through reactive chemistry. Unlike greenhouse gases, many of the species mentioned here are regulated both for emissions and in ambient air.

==The importance of greenhouse gases==
Wide variations in the concentration of these gases occur over various timescales as a result of uptake by plants and variations in anthropogenic emissions. Variations can be seen for even minor changes in wind direction, depending on local conditions (for example, if a road exists nearby). Monitoring of gases over time therefore provides an understanding of the baseline, to which any changes induced by future activity can be compared quantitatively.

There are numerous sources of greenhouse gases, both natural and artificial. Natural variations of long-lived greenhouse gases, mainly CH4 and carbon dioxide CO2, relate to soil and deeper subsurface processes. These variations are augmented by fugitive emissions from vehicle exhausts, industry and landfill. Development of a shale gas exploration programme potentially adds further fugitive emissions from leaks, gas storage, processing operations, fracking fluid and flowback. It is important to establish the range of baseline concentrations of greenhouse gases and other air-quality parameters before any shale gas operations begin.

==The monitoring site==
The monitoring site was located close to the Cuadrilla shale gas exploration site at Preston New Road, Little Plumpton, Lancashire. A waterproof enclosure was installed with instrumentation to measure continuous concentrations of O3, PMs, NOx, CH4 and CO2, as well as wind speed and direction, air temperature, and relative humidity. In addition, air samples were taken to the University of York for analysis of a wider range of parameters.

==Data interpretation==
==Meteorology==
The wind statistics observed over an example measurement period (4 December 2014 to 14 March 2016) are shown in Figure 2 as a conventional wind rose. This type of illustration shows the number of times that the wind blows from various directions. The colour scale illustrates the corresponding proportion of winds in each direction for a range of surface wind speeds.

As expected at this site, as for any exposed site in the UK, the dominant wind direction is from the western quadrant (about 50 per cent of the time), consistent with the UK’s location as an island in the Atlantic mid-latitude storm track. This is also the direction from which the strongest winds are observed (red colours in Figure 2), typically coinciding with the passage of mid-latitude cyclones over the UK mainland.

[[Image:plumptonMet.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Wind rose showing wind speed and direction statistics for the period November 2014 to March 2016. The radius defines the percentage of time the wind in each of 12 wind direction cones (30° span), while the colour scale defines the wind speed (red colours indicate strong wind speeds over 6 ms-1 and yellow colours indicate lighter winds). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
This is important for understanding the local baseline. The position of the site near to the Blackpool shoreline means that winds bringing air from the Atlantic will typically carry relatively well-mixed and background airmasses to the measurement site. (In this context, a ‘background’ can be conceived to be an airmass relatively unaffected by local or regional pollution sources, broadly representative of the average composition of northern hemispheric air at the time.)

==Greenhouse gases==
Greenhouse gas concentrations were measured from December 2014. A time series of the data is shown in Figure 3. A general correlation between CO2 and CH4 can be seen over the measurement period. There are clear periods of background where CO2 and CH4 concentrations appear relatively flat at around 400 parts per million (ppm) and 2 ppm respectively. These periods coincide with westerly winds and represent the relatively unpolluted air from the Atlantic. The periods of generally enhanced CO2 and CH4 (between 400 and 450 ppm and 2 and 4 ppm, respectively) are most often with moderate easterly and southerly winds. The short-term events (spikes on the graph) coincide most often with light south easterly and northerly wind directions.

[[Image:plumptonCH4CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 3'''    Time series of carbon dioxide (grey) and methane (red) in units of ppm (December 2014 to March 2016). BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
The elevated concentrations above the background represent a wide mix of pollutant sources upwind, both local and regional, that are being further investigated. It should be noted that the concentrations of greenhouse gases measured are not toxic or known to be hazardous to health.

Figure 4 shows a sample of the measured data in Figure 2 for CH4 and CO2 but for a 24-hour period. All measurements over a given hour of day for the dataset period are shown together. This gives an idea of when, during an average day, there were changes in concentration relative to the expected baseline. The bold line is the average for that hour of day and the shaded area is the 95 per cent confidence interval. The data shows that there are relative peaks in both the morning and afternoon, as is generally expected for these species.

[[Image:fig2a_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4a'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CH4. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:fig2b_CH4_CO2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 4b'''    hourly–averaged data for a 24–hour period for CO2. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Air quality==
The time series for O3, NO, NO2, NOx, PM1, PM2.5, PM4 and PM10 are shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7. The data indicates that there are times when the site is affected by higher levels of pollution in the form of NO, NO2 and PMs (spikes on the graphs). O3 shows elevated typical maritime concentrations from the west and is indicative of an aged air mass, broadly reflective of prevailing Atlantic ozone. The influence of the Atlantic air is also shown in the PM measurements, which are all enhanced when the wind is from the west as a result of maritime aerosols.

Local influence can also be observed as spikes on the graphs. Further investigation is being carried out but a road running close to the site may be a contributory factor.

[[Image:TimeSeriesOfOzoneConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 5'''    Time series of Ozone (O3) concentrations. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 6'''    TimeSeriesOfNOConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>
 
[[Image:TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsYorks.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 7'''    TimeSeriesOfPMConcentrationsLancs. BGS © UKRI.</center>

==Measurement statistics==
The concentration statistics for the range of parameters measured are shown in Table 1. The mean concentration of CH4 is slightly above the northern hemispheric seasonal average of about 1.9 ppm, while the CO2 site average is marginally enhanced relative to the hemispheric average (about 402 ppm). The concentration statistics for the other parameters represent only a limited dataset to date.

Table 1 Statistical metrics for air quality pollutants. Percentages refer to percentiles. LOD refers to measurements below the limit of detection of the instrument.

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
|-
|Compound
|10%
|25%
|33%
|Mean
|75%
|90%
|95%
|-
|CH4 (ppm)
|1.93
|1.94
|1.95
|2.22
|2.12
|2.68
|3.66
|-
|CO2 (ppb)
|399.13
|402.52
|403.74
|412.83
|418.16
|435.12
|447.34
|-
|O3 (ppb)
|11.37
|23.77
|27.43
|33.32
|38.85
|41.21
|42.73
|-
|NO (ppb)
|0.08
|0.19
|0.26
|0.54
|1.26
|3.17
|7.68
|-
|NO2 (ppb)
|LOD
|LOD
|0.13
|0.96
|4.65
|12.99
|18.93
|-
|NOx (ppb)
|LOD
|0.20
|0.59
|1.60
|5.72
|17.36
|26.15
|-
|PM1 (μg / m3)
|1.06
|1.82
|2.23
|3.01
|5.93
|12.38
|18.12
|-
|PM2.5 (μg / m3)
|1.92
|3.31
|4.04
|5.57
|9.40
|14.49
|19.59
|-
|PM4 (μg / m3)
|2.54
|4.47
|5.49
|7.66
|11.97
|17.64
|21.26
|-
|PM10 (μg / m3)
|3.14
|5.61
|6.73
|9.12
|13.90
|19.91
|23.79
|-
|PMtotal (μg / m3)
|3.69
|6.55
|7.80
|10.55
|15.87
|22.34
|26.43
|-
|Particle Count (particles/cm3)
|15.52
|22.70
|27.29
|41.86
|143.30
|369.60
|490.53
|}

==Non-methane hydrocarbons results==
Samples for hydrocarbon (C2 to C6) analysis were collected weekly in special canisters from both the Little Plumpton (Lancashire) and Kirby Misperton (Yorkshire) sites and returned to the WACL laboratory at the University of York’s [https://www.york.ac.uk/chemistry/research/wacl/ Wolfson Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratories.]

The plots in figures 8, 9 and 10 show the distribution of individual species (ethane, propane and benzene) at the Little Plumpton and Kirby Misperton sites, together with distributions from a site at Auchencorth Moss in Scotland and samples taken from air above BGS’s boreholes around Kirby Misperton. The dataset for hydrocarbons from 2016 is available on the [https://catalogue.ceda.ac.uk/uuid/4878d1fcd0694c07a0dc08ceaccae9e1/ BADC website archive.]

[[Image:figure8_boxplot (3).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 8'''    Box plots showing the distributions of ethane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure9_boxplot (2).jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 9'''    Box plots showing the distributions of propane from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:figure10_boxplot.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 10'''    Box plots showing the distributions of benzene from Kirby Misperton (KM), Little Plumpton (LP), air above BGS boreholes (BH) and Auchencorth Moss (AM). BGS © UKRI.

Benzene annual mean concentration at Little Plumpton: 0.412 ppb; observed range: 0.046 to 2.4 ppb (n=26 samples over October 2015 to October 2016).

Note: EC Air Quality Directive limit value for benzene (annual mean) = 1.54 ppb. Observations to date indicate a mean baseline concentration around a factor of three lower than the EC directive limit value.</center>

[[category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Fylde, Lancashire]]

Category:Environmental baseline monitoring in the Fylde, Lancashire

2026-10-21T12:00:31Z

Ajhil:

{{Underconstruction}}
==Environmental baseline monitoring in the Fylde, Lancashire==
Along with partners from the former Public Health England (now the UK Health Security Agency) and the universities of Birmingham, Bristol, Manchester, Royal Holloway and York, BGS carried out a programme of science-based environmental monitoring in Fylde, Lancashire, an area where hydraulic fracturing for shale-gas exploration was undertaken in 2018 and 2019 by Cuadrilla at its Preston New Road site. Our environmental investigations took place from 2015; most ended in 2020, but limited monitoring of seismicity and groundwater continued.

'''The BGS-led environmental monitoring programme was independent of both the industry and regulators.'''

The study represents the first independent, integrated monitoring programme to characterise the environmental baseline in an area subjected to close scrutiny in the development of a UK shale-gas industry.

[[Image:ShallowboreholesFylde.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Drilling shallow boreholes in Fylde, Lancashire, for monitoring groundwater quality close to sites proposed for exploration of unconventional hydrocarbons. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>

The investigation built on pre-existing national monitoring programmes for groundwater and seismicity.

==The need for an effective baseline and independent monitoring==
Starting in February 2015, our baseline environmental monitoring programme acquired a robust set of water, air, soil and ground baseline measurements. This provided a vastly improved knowledge base for an area recognised as prospective for shale gas but also of significant public concern. Should any future gas exploration or development take place in Lancashire (or elsewhere in the UK) this data would provide us with a strong evidence base against which to assess any changes in future environmental conditions.

Such baseline characterisation was not undertaken during the early stages of unconventional oil and gas development in parts of North America, where recent scientific study has highlighted that problems with lack of regulation and borehole integrity have led to environmental pollution. The monitoring in Fylde was valuable as it provided environmental baseline data and its temporal variation, regardless of whether or not any future shale gas exploration takes place.

The monitoring we undertook was independent of industry and the regulators, to ensure that scientifically robust outputs were evidence based and impartial.

Information collected from the monitoring programme is summarised on the BGS website and is also supporting peer-reviewed science.
[[category:Shale gas environmental monitoring]]

Southern Scotland

2026-10-21T11:59:22Z

Ajhil:

{{Underconstruction}}
===Southern Scotland===
A total of 78 groundwater sample analyses from the Silurian, Ordovician, Devonian, Carboniferous and igneous aquifers in southern Scotland were interpreted to investigate the groundwater chemistry of these aquifers. The samples were collected between 2002 and 2006. Permian aquifers in southern Scotland were not included in this study; they will be reported on separately.

[[Image:Samples_southernScotland1.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Baseline samples in southern Scotland against a simplified 1:625 000 scale geology map. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>

Download the [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/9164/ Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry of southern Scotland] report.

===Main findings===
The collection and interpretation of new groundwater chemistry data for southern Scotland has led to the following conclusions:

* ''Most of the groundwater pH values in the region are in the near-neutral range (6.5–8.5)''. Groundwaters from Ordovician and Silurian rocks tend to have a slightly lower pH than those from Devonian sandstones and Carboniferous sandstones and limestones. Groundwaters from igneous rocks and mineralised Lower Palaeozoic strata are more acidic, with occasional pH values below 6.5.
* ''Bicarbonate alkalinity: HCO3'' is in the range 100–250 mg/l for Ordovician and Silurian groundwaters, 200–320 mg/l for Devonian and Carboniferous groundwaters, and <100 mg/l for igneous groundwaters and mineralised springs from the Lower Palaeozoic.
* ''Cl and SO4 concentrations'' are generally low and reflect inputs from rainfall, with the exception of Carboniferous groundwaters which tend to have highest concentrations of Cl and SO4, possibly reflecting the influence of connate water and sulphide mineralisation within interbedded mudstone.
* ''Concentrations of the major cations'' reflect a combination of rainfall input, mineral weathering, and anthropogenic inputs derived from the use of fertilisers and liming (or from other sources of pollution). Most notable is an enrichment of K (5–10 mg/l) in groundwaters from Carboniferous sedimentary rocks, probably resulting from feldspar weathering. Ca concentrations broadly reflect the distribution of calcite in rocks. Groundwater from Ordovician, Silurian and mineralised strata and igneous aquifers are undersaturated with respect to calcite, as would be expected from their non-carbonate mineralogy. Groundwater from the Devonian and Carboniferous strata are generally saturated or supersaturated with respect to calcite, indicating the presence of calcite either as a major (Carboniferous limestone) or minor (calcite cement in Devonian sandstones) component.
* ''Most of the groundwaters in the study area are oxidising'', with dissolved oxygen concentrations in the range 1–7 mg/l and a redox potential (Eh) greater than 300 mV. However, the mineralised springs are reducing, with sulphate reduction indicated at St Ronan’s Well. Groundwaters from Carboniferous strata in general tend to be slightly less oxidising than those from other aquifers. Apart from these incidences, however, the groundwater redox status does not appear to vary strongly with geology.
* ''Nitrate concentrations'' are typically low: the median concentration of nitrate in groundwater is less than 5 mg/l NO3-N across the aquifers. Concentrations are related to land use, with groundwaters beneath agricultural land showing higher concentrations than those beneath non-agricultural land. Elevated nitrate concentrations (>5 mg/l NO3-N) are found outwith the current designated Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZs). The most noticeable are in the west of the study area in Galloway, where high concentrations are associated with improved pasture, and in particular dairy farming.
* ''Concentrations of phosphorous'' in groundwater can be an important influence on surface water eutrophication if present in baseflow to streams and rivers. Median P concentrations for the aquifer units in southern Scotland tend to fall in the range 30–70 μg/l-P. P concentrations do not show any strong relationship with land use, illustrating the complexity of P geochemistry, and the important role that soil geochemistry plays in the mobilisation of P into groundwater.

===Interpretations in terms of groundwater flow in southern Scotland===
The hydrochemistry data and information on groundwater residence times help give an insight into groundwater flow in the different aquifers in southern Scotland. The best interpretation of the groundwater flow system within all of these aquifers is that it is largely through fractures, and well mixed in the top 50 metres or so. This is supported by the lack of correlation of nitrate with source depth across the region, and by the relative proportions of CFC and SF6 concentrations, which indicate mixing rather than piston flow models.

There is no evidence of paleaowater in the area, and (where CFC and SF6 have been measured) all samples recorded some proportion of water less than 50 years old. However, groundwater, even in the more fractured less permeable Lower Palaeozoic aquifers, can be resident for several decades.

Groundwater samples in the upland areas of southern Scotland often contain a large element of water that fell as rain on higher ground (as implied by depleted stable isotope data). This suggests connected groundwater systems, or possible in some instances reinfiltration of upland run-off into the groundwater systems.

===Data===
'''Tables of summary statistics''' 
The tables below provide a statistical summary of the natural variation in groundwater chemistry in each of the studied aquifers in southern Scotland: Silurian, Ordovician, Devonian and Carboniferous. Data between the 10th and 90th percentiles for each element or ion are presented, which allows the influence of outliers to be minimised. We would expect new data to plot within this range 80% of the time.

The data indicate systematic variations in some solutes with geology. Most noticeable is the saturation and supersaturation of calcite in groundwater from Devonian and Carboniferous aquifers and the lack of calcite in many of the samples from the Silurian and Ordovician aquifers. Another difference is the elevation of sulphate and potassium in groundwaters from the Carboniferous aquifer compared to other waters.

Samples from igneous aquifers also have different groundwater chemistry to the main aquifers, but there are too few samples in this group to draw conclusions about the expected baseline chemistry that are statistically meaningful.

Concentrations in italics in the tables below are below instrumental detection limits and have been estimated using a robust 'regression on order' statistics ('ROS') approach. For further detail on this statistical approach, see the full Southern Scotland Baseline report at the bottom of this page.

* [[Media:Summarytable_silurian.jpg|Silurian — Table of summary statistics]]
* [[Media:Summarytable_ordovician.jpg|Ordovician — Table of summary statistics]]
* [[Media:Summarytable_devonian.jpg|Devonian — Table of summary statistics]]
* [[Media:Summarytable_carboniferous.jpg|Carboniferous — Table of summary statistics]]
* [[Media:Piper_individual3.jpg|Piper diagrams illustrate the distribution of groundwater chemistry data for the four main aquifers, and indicate outliers.]]

===Maps of regional variation in selected ion concentrations===
* [[Media:SSmaps.jpg|pH and HCO3 — Maps illustrating spatial variation in the concentration]]
* [[Media:SSmap2.jpg|Na and K — Maps illustrating spatial variation in the concentration]]
* [[Media:SSmap3.jpg|Mg and Ca — Maps illustrating spatial variation in the concentration]]
* [[Media:SSmap4.jpg|NO3-N and Fe — Maps illustrating spatial variation in the concentration]]
* [[Media:SSmap5.jpg|Mn and F — Maps illustrating spatial variation in the concentration]]

===Baseline report===
MacDonald, A M, Ó Dochartaigh, B É, Kinniburgh, D G and Darling, W G. 2008. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/9164/ Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry of southern Scotland]. Commissioned Report, OR/08/062N. British Geological Survey.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Cumbria and Northumberland summary results

2026-10-21T11:56:22Z

Ajhil: /* Cumbria and Northumberland */

{{Underconstruction}}
==Cumbria and Northumberland==
===Regional summary===
In Cumbria and Northumberland, 16 sites have been sampled for methane in a number of different aquifers. The two main aquifers are Permo-Triassic sandstone and the Fell Sandstone and Border Group.

[[Image:CumbriaGeology.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Geology of Cumbria and Northumberland'''</center>

* Permo-Triassic sandstone is the second most important aquifer in the UK. It has a high porosity, meaning groundwater flows through pore spaces in the rock. The majority of the Carlisle Basin is Triassic sandstone; this can be up to 600 m thick and is made up of sandstone, conglomerates and marls. The southern part of the Carlisle Basin is Permian sandstone consisting of sandstone, marls and breccias.
* The Fell Sandstone and Border Group is an important aquifer for the very north east of England, stretching west to Carlisle where it reaches great depths. It can be up to 300 m thick and is made of quartz rich sandstones with silty or pebbly bands.

The shale units present in the Northumberland Trough are the Bowland Shale and other black shales of Visean to Tournaisian age that are typically interbedded with sandstone, siltstone and mudstone. These shales are thinner, shallower and not laterally extensive when compared to the Bowland Shale Formation in Lancashire and Yorkshire. Oil shale is present in the Tweed Basin, but at shallow depths. In the west of this region, the coal seams of the Pennine Coal Measures Group are reported to have potential for coal bed methane.

===Methane in UK groundwater results===
These summary results are from single sampling visits to each site as part of the methane baseline project. The data are summarised for the Cumbria and Northumberland region as a whole and also for individual aquifers, where enough data are available.

<center>
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:CumbriaTopography.jpg|frameless|left|470px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:CumbriaNorthumberlandBarChart.jpg|frameless|right|480px]]</li>
</ul></div>
</center>

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Area'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 225px;" | '''Cumbria and Northumberland'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.0002'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.00065'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''1.434'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''16'''
|-
|''Permo-Triassic sandstone''
| 0.0002
|0.0005
|0.0296
|7
|-
|''Fell Sandstone and Border Group''
|0.0002
| 0.0002
| 0.0006
|3
|}

<center>'''Methane samples and concentrations in Cumbria and Northumberland'''</center>
<center>Note: values less than the analytical detection limit have been converted to half the detection limit for the purposes of this statistical summary and graph, but the relevant detection limit is quoted in the table above.</center>

===Baseline groundwater quality data===
No baseline data are available for Permo-Triassic sandstone or the Fell Sandstone and Border Group in this region.

===Contact===
Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Cumbria and Northumberland summary results

2026-10-21T11:56:11Z

Ajhil: /* Cumbria and Northumberland */

Cumbria and Northumberland summary results

2026-10-21T11:55:41Z

Ajhil: /* Cumbria and Northumberland */

{{Underconstruction}}
==Cumbria and Northumberland==
===Regional summary===
In Cumbria and Northumberland, 16 sites have been sampled for methane in a number of different aquifers. The two main aquifers are Permo-Triassic sandstone and the Fell Sandstone and Border Group.

[[Image:CumbriaGeology.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

Geology of Cumbria and Northumberland.

* Permo-Triassic sandstone is the second most important aquifer in the UK. It has a high porosity, meaning groundwater flows through pore spaces in the rock. The majority of the Carlisle Basin is Triassic sandstone; this can be up to 600 m thick and is made up of sandstone, conglomerates and marls. The southern part of the Carlisle Basin is Permian sandstone consisting of sandstone, marls and breccias.
* The Fell Sandstone and Border Group is an important aquifer for the very north east of England, stretching west to Carlisle where it reaches great depths. It can be up to 300 m thick and is made of quartz rich sandstones with silty or pebbly bands.

The shale units present in the Northumberland Trough are the Bowland Shale and other black shales of Visean to Tournaisian age that are typically interbedded with sandstone, siltstone and mudstone. These shales are thinner, shallower and not laterally extensive when compared to the Bowland Shale Formation in Lancashire and Yorkshire. Oil shale is present in the Tweed Basin, but at shallow depths. In the west of this region, the coal seams of the Pennine Coal Measures Group are reported to have potential for coal bed methane.

===Methane in UK groundwater results===
These summary results are from single sampling visits to each site as part of the methane baseline project. The data are summarised for the Cumbria and Northumberland region as a whole and also for individual aquifers, where enough data are available.

<center>
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:CumbriaTopography.jpg|frameless|left|470px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:CumbriaNorthumberlandBarChart.jpg|frameless|right|480px]]</li>
</ul></div>
</center>

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Area'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 225px;" | '''Cumbria and Northumberland'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.0002'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.00065'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''1.434'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''16'''
|-
|''Permo-Triassic sandstone''
| 0.0002
|0.0005
|0.0296
|7
|-
|''Fell Sandstone and Border Group''
|0.0002
| 0.0002
| 0.0006
|3
|}

<center>'''Methane samples and concentrations in Cumbria and Northumberland'''</center>
<center>Note: values less than the analytical detection limit have been converted to half the detection limit for the purposes of this statistical summary and graph, but the relevant detection limit is quoted in the table above.</center>

===Baseline groundwater quality data===
No baseline data are available for Permo-Triassic sandstone or the Fell Sandstone and Border Group in this region.

===Contact===
Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Strathmore

2026-10-21T11:53:14Z

Ajhil: /* Data */

{{Underconstruction}}
===Strathmore===
A total of 48 groundwater samples, collected from boreholes, springs and shallow wells, were used to interpret the chemistry of groundwater in the high productivity Devonian sedimentary aquifer.

[[Image:Samples_Strathmore.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Baseline samples in Strathmore; the backdrop is the 1:625 000 scale geology map. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>

Download the [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/10299/ Baseline Scotland: the Lower Devonian aquifer of Strathmore] report.

===Baseline data===
'''Main findings''' 
The collection and interpretation of new groundwater chemistry data for the Strathmore area has led to the following conclusions:

* ''The groundwaters of the Devonian aquifer in Strathmore are mainly weakly mineralised'', with TDS concentrations mostly less than 400 mg/l. Groundwaters have near-neutral to slightly alkaline pH values and are for the most part oxygenated, with detectable dissolved oxygen and high redox potentials. As a result, dissolved iron, manganese and ammonium (NH4-N) concentrations are usually low. Water from shallow boreholes and springs is often undersaturated with calcite, but in deeper boreholes, reaction with carbonate minerals in the aquifer is more usual and most of these are saturated with respect to calcite.
* ''Nitrate concentrations'' are often high and nearly one third of the samples exceeded the EC drinking water limit for nitrate of 11.4 mg/l.1 as NO3-N. Under the oxidising conditions, nitrate is a stable solute species across the aquifer and is found at depths in excess of 100 m.
* ''Concentrations of phosphorous'' in groundwater across the aquifer are typically less than 0.1 mg/l. Given the importance of P in controlling eutrophication in surface water, these concentrations in groundwater may be significant.
* ''Increased salinity occurs in groundwater'' in some near-coastal boreholes, most likely as a result of mixing with seawater.
* ''Most trace elements have low concentrations'', in accordance with the neutral pH groundwater conditions. Concentrations of arsenic are relatively high in some groundwaters (up to 8.8 μg/l), though none exceeds the EC maximum permissible value for drinking water of 10 μg/l. Concentrations of uranium reach up to 15.4 μg/l, with the highest concentration just exceeding the WHO provisional guideline value for drinking water of 15 μg/l. Two other exceedances above maximum permissible values for drinking were observed, for nitrite (highest concentration 0.194 mg/l.) and fluoride (highest concentration 3.7 mg/l.).
* ''The chemistry and residence time'' indicators (CFC and stable isotopes) indicate that the groundwaters are largely of young age, being mostly recharged within the last 40 years, with mixing throughout the top 100 m of the aqufier. The young age of the groundwaters means they are vulnerable to contamination.
* ''The most significant groundwater-quality problems'' identified by this survey are:
# The widespread presence of elevated nitrate concentrations in groundwater, which is strongly linked to agricultural activity;
# Elevated phosphate concentrations, which may affect the quality of surface water when discharged to rivers as baseflow.
# The presence of saline water in some near-coastal boreholes, indicating localised saline intrusion. It is not clear to what degree the saline intrusion is natural and to what degree it has been enhanced by over-pumping.
===Data===
* [[Media:Tablestats_summary1.jpg|Devonian Strathmore aquifer — Summary statistics of groundwater chemistry (1 of 2)]]
* [[Media:Tablestats_summary2.jpg|Devonian Strathmore aquifer — Summary statistics of groundwater chemistry (2 of 2)]]
* [[Media:Piperdiagram_majorions1.jpg|Strathmore groundwater — Piper diagram of the major ion chemistry]]
* [[Media:Maps.jpg|Ca, Mg and HCO3 and Cl, SO4, NO3-N — Maps illustrating spatial variation in the concentration]]
* [[Media:Maps2.jpg|Na, K and P and F, Fe and Mn — Maps illustrating spatial variation in the concentration]]

===Baseline report===
Ó Dochartaigh, B. É., Smedley, P., MacDonald, A. M. and Darling, W. G. (2004) [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/10299/ Baseline Scotland: the Lower Devonian aquifer of Strathmore]. Commissioned Report, CR/06/250N. British Geological Survey.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Strathmore

2026-10-21T11:52:56Z

Ajhil: /* Data */

{{Underconstruction}}
===Strathmore===
A total of 48 groundwater samples, collected from boreholes, springs and shallow wells, were used to interpret the chemistry of groundwater in the high productivity Devonian sedimentary aquifer.

[[Image:Samples_Strathmore.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Baseline samples in Strathmore; the backdrop is the 1:625 000 scale geology map. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>

Download the [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/10299/ Baseline Scotland: the Lower Devonian aquifer of Strathmore] report.

===Baseline data===
'''Main findings''' 
The collection and interpretation of new groundwater chemistry data for the Strathmore area has led to the following conclusions:

* ''The groundwaters of the Devonian aquifer in Strathmore are mainly weakly mineralised'', with TDS concentrations mostly less than 400 mg/l. Groundwaters have near-neutral to slightly alkaline pH values and are for the most part oxygenated, with detectable dissolved oxygen and high redox potentials. As a result, dissolved iron, manganese and ammonium (NH4-N) concentrations are usually low. Water from shallow boreholes and springs is often undersaturated with calcite, but in deeper boreholes, reaction with carbonate minerals in the aquifer is more usual and most of these are saturated with respect to calcite.
* ''Nitrate concentrations'' are often high and nearly one third of the samples exceeded the EC drinking water limit for nitrate of 11.4 mg/l.1 as NO3-N. Under the oxidising conditions, nitrate is a stable solute species across the aquifer and is found at depths in excess of 100 m.
* ''Concentrations of phosphorous'' in groundwater across the aquifer are typically less than 0.1 mg/l. Given the importance of P in controlling eutrophication in surface water, these concentrations in groundwater may be significant.
* ''Increased salinity occurs in groundwater'' in some near-coastal boreholes, most likely as a result of mixing with seawater.
* ''Most trace elements have low concentrations'', in accordance with the neutral pH groundwater conditions. Concentrations of arsenic are relatively high in some groundwaters (up to 8.8 μg/l), though none exceeds the EC maximum permissible value for drinking water of 10 μg/l. Concentrations of uranium reach up to 15.4 μg/l, with the highest concentration just exceeding the WHO provisional guideline value for drinking water of 15 μg/l. Two other exceedances above maximum permissible values for drinking were observed, for nitrite (highest concentration 0.194 mg/l.) and fluoride (highest concentration 3.7 mg/l.).
* ''The chemistry and residence time'' indicators (CFC and stable isotopes) indicate that the groundwaters are largely of young age, being mostly recharged within the last 40 years, with mixing throughout the top 100 m of the aqufier. The young age of the groundwaters means they are vulnerable to contamination.
* ''The most significant groundwater-quality problems'' identified by this survey are:
# The widespread presence of elevated nitrate concentrations in groundwater, which is strongly linked to agricultural activity;
# Elevated phosphate concentrations, which may affect the quality of surface water when discharged to rivers as baseflow.
# The presence of saline water in some near-coastal boreholes, indicating localised saline intrusion. It is not clear to what degree the saline intrusion is natural and to what degree it has been enhanced by over-pumping.
===Data===
* [[Media:Tablestats_summary1.jpg|Devonian Strathmore aquifer — Summary statistics of groundwater chemistry (1 of 2)]]
* [[Media:Tablestats_summary2.jpg|Devonian Strathmore aquifer — Summary statistics of groundwater chemistry (2 of 2)]]
* [[Media:Piperdiagram_majorions1.jpg|Strathmore groundwater — Piper diagram of the major ion chemistry]]
* [[Media:Maps.jpg|Ca, Mg and HCO3 and Cl, SO4, NO3-N — Maps illustrating spatial variation in the concentration]]
* [[Media:Maps2.jpg|Na, K and P and F, Fe and Mn — Maps illustrating spatial variation in the concentration]]

===Baseline report===
Ó Dochartaigh, B. É., Smedley, P., MacDonald, A. M. and Darling, W. G. (2004) [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/10299/ Baseline Scotland: the Lower Devonian aquifer of Strathmore]. Commissioned Report, CR/06/250N. British Geological Survey.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Manganese (Mn) in Scottish Groundwater

2026-10-21T11:52:17Z

Ajhil:

Manganese (Mn) in Scottish Groundwater

2026-10-21T11:51:34Z

Ajhil:

Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry data

2026-10-21T11:50:32Z

Ajhil: /* Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry data */

{{Underconstruction}}
==Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry data==
[[Image:Sepa_logo1.jpg|frameless|right|200px|]]

Collecting new data on groundwater chemistry in Scotland to provide a scientific foundation to Scottish, UK and European water quality policy.

===About Baseline Scotland===
Baseline Scotland is a joint project between BGS and [https://www.sepa.org.uk/ SEPA ]which is providing new groundwater chemistry data for Scotland. This new data provides essential information to sustainably manage Scotland’s water environment, as required by Scottish, UK and European water legislation, (such as the [[Glossary of groundwater and groundwater-related terms#Water Framework Directive | Water Framework Directive)]]. Before Baseline Scotland very little reliable groundwater chemistry data existed, particularly for trace elements.

Systematic groundwater sampling surveys were carried out across all the major bedrock aquifers in Scotland between 2005 and 2011, as well as many superficial aquifers. Standardised sampling techniques were used to characterise the groundwater chemistry in detail and investigate how long since groundwater was recharged from rainfall; how groundwater has interacted with the aquifer rocks; and whether there is any groundwater pollution. The results from most parts of Scotland have already been reported in [[Baseline Scotland reports | detailed reports]]. Summary results for each major aquifer group in Scotland are presented in [[Scotland's aquifers and groundwater bodies | Scotland’s Aquifers and Groundwater Bodies]] (2015). Detailed results for the final areas, and a detailed overview of the baseline groundwater chemistry of Scotland, will be reported soon.

===The aims of Baseline Scotland are:===
* To characterise the natural background groundwater quality in the main aquifers of Scotland, by carrying out new detailed groundwater chemistry sampling.
*To provide a scientific foundation to Scottish, UK and European water quality policy and groundwater management and protection, with an emphasis on the protection and sustainable development of high quality groundwater.

===Outputs===
* Summarised groundwater chemistry data for major bedrock aquifers in Scotland.

===Spatial coverage of groundwater chemistry data: Scotland===
Before the Baseline Scotland project began there was little information on natural groundwater chemistry in Scotland. Existing data was mainly old, of variable quality, limited (often to a few major ions only), and skewed to areas of groundwater contamination, particularly related to mining, and to the more productive Scottish aquifers, in particular the Devonian aquifers of Fife, Strathmore and Morayshire, and the Permian aquifer in Dumfries. Since the start of the Baseline Scotland project, 268 new groundwater samples have been collected from aquifers across Scotland. A further 479 samples collected during other projects since 2001, using equally rigorous sampling techniques to the Baseline samples, have been incorporated into the Baseline dataset.

[[Image:AllBaselineSamples-Nov15.jpg|frameless|center|400px|]]

<center>'''Spatial coverage of Baseline Scotland groundwater chemistry data: for bedrock aquifers (blue circles) and Quaternary aquifers (green squares). Backdrop is 1:625 000 scale geological map.'''</center>

===Baseline sampling===
The Baseline sampling surveys collected new data on groundwater chemistry, stable isotopes and residence times. Rigorous well head measurements (of parameters including dissolved oxygen, redox potential, SEC and bicarbonate) were combined with collecting samples for analysis of major, minor and trace ions; stable isotopes (δH2, δ18O and δ13C); dissolved organic carbon; and where possible, CFC (chlorofluorocarbon), SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride), and other dissolved gases such as CH4 (methane).

* [[Baseline sampling and analysis methodology | Technical details of the Baseline sampling methodology]]

<center>
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:Baseline_photo3.jpg|frameless|left|285px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:Baseline_photo2.jpg|frameless|right|350px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:Baseline_photo1.jpg|frameless|right|350px]]</li>
</ul></div>
</center>

<center>''(top left)'' '''Measuring wellhead chemistry. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>
<center>''(centre)'' '''Sampling groundwater. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>
<center>''(bottom)'' '''Sampling groundwater. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>

===Baseline Scotland data===
Twelve major bedrock aquifer units have been defined across Scotland, which have distinctly different controls on baseline groundwater chemistry – largely related to geological age and rock type. The baseline groundwater chemistry of each of these aquifer units is reported separately. Click on the data links below to view summaries of baseline groundwater chemistry data already reported for Scotland.
 
[[Image:BaselineBedrock.jpg|frameless|center|350px|]]
<center>'''Major bedrock aquifer units in Scotland, which show distinctly different baseline groundwater chemistry.'''</center>

===Baseline Scotland data summaries===
* [[Aberdeenshire | Aberdeenshire data]]
* [[Midland Valley | Midland Valley data]]
* [[Moray Firth | Moray Firth data]]
* [[Southern Scotland | Southern Scotland data]]
* [[Strathmore | Strathmore data]]
* [[Manganese (Mn) in Scottish Groundwater | Manganese in Scottish Groundwater]]

A summary of the baseline groundwater chemistry in each major bedrock aquifer in Scotland is presented in [[Scotland's aquifers and groundwater bodies | Scotland’s Aquifers and Groundwater Bodies]].

===Contact===
Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Baseline sampling and analysis methodology

2026-10-21T11:49:36Z

Ajhil: /* Sampling and analysis procedure */

{{Underconstruction}}
===Sample site selection===
The criteria for site selection during dedicated Baseline sampling surveys are:

* to collect a suitable number of samples from each of the studied aquifer types, according to the distribution and areal extent of the aquifers;
* to collect samples distributed as evenly as possible over each of the aquifer types studied; and
* to collect samples that are as far as possible representative of groundwater in the studied aquifers.

[[Image:Figure-1-Baseline_sites1.jpg|frameless|center|400px|]]

<center>'''Distribution of Baseline samples collected to 2010. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>

<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[Image:MajorTrace.jpg|frameless|center|500px]] </li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[Image:FilteringGroundwater.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]] </li>
</ul></div>

<center>''(left)'' '''Major and trace element sampling in central Scotland. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>
<center>''(right)'' '''Filtering groundwater for major and trace element samples. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>

<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[Image:MiningSites.jpg|frameless|center|500px]] </li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[Image:BoreholeAbstractions.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]] </li>
</ul></div>

<center>''(left)'' '''Sampling was done in both rural and mining sites. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>
<center>''(right)'' '''Sampling was done from private, public and industrial borehole abstractions in Scotland. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>

[[Image:AirFreeSamples.jpg|frameless|center|400px|]]

<center>'''Taking air-free samples in a bucket containing flowing groundwater to prevent atmospheric contamination for CFC and SF6 analysis. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>

The primary criteria for including additional data from earlier studies was the demonstration of suitable robust sampling and analysis procedure. The distribution of baseline samples collated to 2010 is shown in Figure 1.

The sites for all samples considered in the Baseline project are chosen to be representative of groundwater in the local area. Sources that are very poorly constructed — e.g. open and/or uncased boreholes in leaking chambers – and which are close to obvious and significant sources of contamination — e.g. unsecured slurry stores – are avoided.

Each of the sample sites is assessed at the time of sampling, in particular the source construction and the surrounding land use, to identify any potential sources of contamination that could affect the chemistry of sampled groundwater and the risk of contamination.

===Sample sources===
Across Scotland as a whole, most of the Baseline groundwater samples are collected from boreholes. However, in some regions, particularly in upland areas, springs form a significant proportion of the sources sampled. In all areas, shallow, large diameter wells are typically the least common source type. In the Midland Valley, a small proportion of samples were collected from mine adits, mine shafts, or boreholes intercepting mine workings.

In most cases, the sampled boreholes are pumped regularly in the weeks leading up to sampling. Where boreholes are not pumping on arrival, they are pumped for at least 10 minutes to allow purging before sample collection. Hence, groundwater samples are believed to be as representative of in-situ groundwater as possible. Pumped groundwater samples represent the compositions of water entering the borehole over its open-hole section. As such, the sample may represent a mixture of waters with different chemistry, especially where the borehole screen extends over more than one fracture inflow.

Springs and wells typically tap shallow groundwater and have relatively small catchments, and so are less likely than boreholes to represent a mixture of groundwaters from different depths. Because springs are constantly flowing, they are naturally purged, and the sampled groundwater is therefore likely to be representative of groundwater in the surrounding aquifer. The main reason Baseline samples are not often collected from shallow wells is that they often form poor sampling points, because they are difficult to purge. Wells are only sampled where they are in daily use and the sample obtained is likely to be representative of groundwater in-situ in the aquifer.

Sources that are very poorly constructed — e.g. open and/or uncased boreholes in leaking chambers – and which are close to obvious and significant sources of contamination — e.g. unsecured slurry stores – are avoided.

===Sampling and analysis procedure===
At each sample site, field measurements are made of:

* pH
* dissolved oxygen (DO)
* redox potential (Eh)
* water temperature
* specific electrical conductance (SEC)
* alkalinity

Where possible, pH, DO and Eh are measured in an in-line flow cell (Figure 2) to minimise atmospheric contamination and parameters were monitored (typically for at least 10 to 15 minutes) until stable readings are obtained. Where not possible, measurements of water as close as possible to the pump outlet are made in a bucket within one to two minutes of abstraction.

Water samples are collected for subsequent laboratory analysis.

* ''Samples for major- and trace-element analysis'' are filtered through 0.45 um filters and collected in polyethylene bottles rinsed with sample water before collection. Four filtered aliquots are collected at each site: two are acidified to 1% v/v with Aristar HNO3, one for analysis of major cations, total sulphur and Si by ICP-OES (inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy), and the other for a large range of trace elements by ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry). A third aliquot is acidified to 1% v/v with Aristar HCl for analysis of As by AFS (atomic fluorescence spectrometry) with hydride generation, to be used if necessary as a check on ICP-MS As analyses. A fourth aliquot is left unacidified for analysis of anions by ion chromatography (Cl, NO3-N, Br, F) and automated colorimetry (NO2-N, NH4-N).
* ''Samples for dissolved organic carbon (DOC) analysis'' are also collected in chromic-acid-washed glass bottles, after filtration using silver-impregnated 0.45 μm filters. DOC was measured by carbon analyser.
* ''Stable-iostopic analysis'' – at most of the sample sites, additional water samples are collected in glass bottles for stable-isotopic analyses (δ2H, δ18O and δ13C).
* ''CFC and SF6 analysis'' – where it is possible to collect an air-free sample direct from the source, samples are also collected CFC and SF6 analysis in glass bottles, submerged under flowing groundwater to prevent atmospheric contamination (Figure 3).

Most analyses are carried out at the BGS laboratories, except for some ICP-MS analysis which were carried out by ACME laboratories, Vancouver, Canada. Charge imbalances are calculated for each sample and reported on, and are typically less than 3%, giving confidence that the analytical results for the major species of all samples are reliable. The BGS laboratories run a series of QA checks, including analysis of certified standards, to ensure that all analyses are within their prescribed limits.

Analyses of total sulphur are expressed as SO4 and alkalinity as HCO3. Analyses of δ2H, δ18O are expressed as per mil deviations relative to VSMOW (Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water) and δ13C relative to VPDB (Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite).

[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Baseline Scotland reports

2026-10-21T11:47:36Z

Ajhil: /* Baseline Scotland reports */

{{Underconstruction}}
==Baseline Scotland reports==
BGS carried out investigations of the baseline quality of groundwater in Scottish aquifers from 2005–2011, as part of a collaboration between BGS and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA). Outputs from this project are presented in a series of reports published between 2006 and 2017, which are available for download below.

[[Image:MidlandValleyDec2008.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Sampling a pumped outflow from an abandoned coal mine in East Lothian. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>

===Baseline Scotland report series===
These reports were produced through a collaboration between BGS and SEPA.

===Final report===
* [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/519084/ Baseline groundwater chemistry in Scotland’s aquifers]

===Regional reports===
* [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/9161/ Baseline Scotland : groundwater chemistry of Aberdeenshire]
* [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/14314/ Baseline Scotland : groundwater chemistry of the Carboniferous sedimentary aquifers of the Midland Valley]
* [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/10293/ Baseline Scotland : groundwater chemistry of the Old Red Sandstone aquifers of the Moray Firth area]
* [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/9164/ Baseline Scotland : groundwater chemistry of southern Scotland]
* [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/10299/ Baseline Scotland : the Lower Devonian aquifer of Strathmore]

A summary of the baseline groundwater chemistry in each major bedrock aquifer in Scotland is presented in [[Scotland's aquifers and groundwater bodies | Scotland's Aquifers and Groundwater Bodies]].

[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Central and Southern Scotland summary results

2026-10-21T11:46:26Z

Ajhil:

{{Underconstruction}}
==Central and southern Scotland==
===Regional summary===
In central and southern Scotland, 31 sites have been sampled for methane from a number of different sedimentary aquifers, mostly from the Carboniferous Clackmannan and Coal Measures groups in central Scotland. Here, groundwater was historically an important resource for industry, but today is not widely used. In southern Scotland there is local groundwater abstraction for agriculture and domestic use.

[[Image:CentralSouthScotlandGeology_v2.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Geology of central and southern Scotland'''</center>

The Clackmannan Group and Coal Measures Group form multi-layered and vertically segmented aquifers, in which fine-grained, well-cemented sandstone layers act as discrete aquifer units in which groundwater flow is predominantly through fractures, and which are separated by lower permeability siltstones, mudstones or coals. Groundwater may be present at various depths under unconfined or confined conditions, and different groundwater heads are seen in different aquifer layers. The thickness of the Carboniferous sedimentary aquifers varies from less than 500 m in southern Scotland to 3000 m in central Scotland.

In this area the formation which is most likely to have potential for shale gas and/or oil is the West Lothian Oil-Shale Formation, which lies stratigraphically immediately below the Clackmannan Group in the eastern part of central Scotland.

===Methane in UK groundwater results===
These summary results are from single sampling visits to each site as part of the [[Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry data | Baseline Scotland project]]. The data are summarised for the central and southern Scotland regions as a whole, and also for individual aquifers, where enough data are available.

<center>
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:CentralSouthScotlandTopography_RB_v2.jpg|frameless|left|470px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:CentralSouthScotlandBarChart.jpg|frameless|right|440px]]</li>
</ul></div>
</center>

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Area'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 275px;" | '''Central and southern Scotland'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''<0.0001'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.0036'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''1.68'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''31'''
|-
|''Clackmannan and Coal Measures Groups''
|<0.0005
|0.00835
|1.68
|18
|}

<center>'''Methane samples and concentrations in central and southern Scotland'''</center>
<center>Note: values less than the analytical detection limit have been converted to half the detection limit for the purposes of this statistical summary and graph, but the relevant detection limit is quoted in the table above.</center>

===Baseline groundwater quality data===
A summary of the baseline quality of groundwater in this area is below. This data was collected as part of a collaborative project between BGS and the [https://www.sepa.org.uk/ Scottish Environment Protection Agency] to investigate the [[Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry data | baseline quality of groundwater in major Scottish aquifers]].

Groundwater from the Clackmannan and Coal Measures Groups in this area is typically reducing and contains a high proportion of old water, recharged more than 35–60 years ago. Mining activity in this area has had a major impact on groundwater quality. More detail on groundwater quality for [[Midland Valley | central Scotland]] and [[Southern Scotland | southern Scotland]] is available via the [[Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry data | Baseline Scotland]] web pages.

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Analysis'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | Ca
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 7.26
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 54.5
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 290
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 21
|-
|Mg
|3.11
|17.5
|96.2
|21
|-
|Na
|6.2
|15.5
|461
|21
|-
|K
|0.64
|3.08
|26.8
|21
|-
|Cl
|5.14
|20.7
|1230
|21
|-
|SO4
|3.82
|48.5
|244
|21
|-
|HCO3
|7
|265
|734
|21
|}

<center>'''Baseline groundwater quality data for central and southern Scotland'''</center>

===Contact===
Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Southern England summary results

2026-10-21T11:44:23Z

Ajhil: /* Baseline groundwater quality data in the Palaeogene */

{{Underconstruction}}
==Southern England==
===Regional summary===
In the south of England, 251 sites have been sampled for methane from a number of different aquifers. The two main aquifers are the Chalk and the Lower Greensand.

[[Image:SouthEnglandGeology_v3.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Geology of southern England'''</center>

* The Chalk is a principal aquifer in southern England, used extensively for public water supply. It has a high porosity but low matrix permeability, and groundwater flows through a well-developed interconnected network of fractures. The Chalk outcrops in the Chilterns, North and South Downs, Salisbury Plain, Wessex Downs and on the south coast. It reaches a maximum thickness of 200 m.
* The Lower Greensand aquifer consists of sands and sandstones, and groundwater flow is mainly through the pore spaces in the rock where the sand is unconsolidated. Groundwater from this aquifer is also used for public water supply. The Lower Greensand outcrops around the edge of the Weald and reaches a maximum thickness of 220 m.

The recent [https://www.nstauthority.co.uk/regulatory-information/exploration-and-production/onshore/ DECC report] on the Weald Basin has reported that there is unlikely to be any shale gas potential in this region, but there could be shale oil reserves, although how much of this could be recovered is unknown. The shale units present in this region are the Kimmeridge and Ampthill Clays, Kellaways, Oxford Clay and Osgodby Formation and the Lias. The Kimmeridge and Amptill Clay consists of mainly black shales and the Kellaways, Oxford Clay and Osgodby Formation consist of mudstones, clays and siltstones.

===Methane in UK groundwater results===
These summaries are based on the results collected from single visits to each site for the purpose of the methane baseline project. The data are summarised for the Southern England region as a whole, and also for individual aquifers, where enough data are available.

The blue boxes highlight where summary data are available for baseline groundwater quality in the different aquifers present in this region, and link to the summaries for each region.

<center>
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:NationalMethane_SouthEng.jpg|frameless|left|470px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:SouthEnglandBarChart.jpg|frameless|right|480px]]</li>
</ul></div>
</center>

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Area'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | '''Southern England'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''<0.00005'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.0013'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''4.72'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''251'''
|-
|''Chalk''
|<0.00005
| 0.0005
|0.083
| 137
|-
|''Greensand''
|<0.00005
|0.0049
| 0.105
|54
|}

<center>'''Methane samples and concentrations in Southern England'''</center>
<center>Note: values less than the analytical detection limit have been converted to half the detection limit for the purposes of this statistical summary and graph, but the relevant detection limit is quoted in the table above. Thames Water and the Environment Agency are acknowledged for additional sample collection.</center>

===Baseline groundwater quality data in the Chalk of the North Downs, Kent and east Surrey===
A summary of the baseline quality of groundwater in the Chalk of the North Downs, Kent and east Surrey is below. These data were collected as part of a collaborative project between BGS and the Environment Agency to investigate the [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | baseline quality of groundwater in major UK aquifers]]. The [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | UK baseline study results]] page provides downloads of all the reports produced by the project.

[[Image:SouthChalkBOX.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]
 
{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Analysis'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | Ca
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 15.7
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 116
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 399
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 132
|-
|Mg
|1.1
|2.8
|689
|132
|-
|Na
|6.2
| 15
| 5820
|132
|-
|K
|<0.4
|1.92
|175
|132
|-
|Cl
|10
|26
|10700
|134
|-
|SO4
|<10
|21.4
|1140
|133
|-
|HCO3
|162
|274
|493
|108
|-
|NO3.N
|<0.01
|6.2
|28.2
|133
|}
<center>'''Baseline quality data for the Chalk in the North Downs, Kent and east Surrey'''</center>

The Chalk in this region generally contains water of high quality, the main properties being determined by natural reactions between rainwater and the carbonate rock (HCO3). Groundwater is oxidising in the unconfined areas, but becomes rapidly reducing once confined by the Palaeogene deposits. The confined groundwaters are typically fresh and of pristine pre-industrial quality but may contain residual concentrations of chloride (Cl) from older water at depth. Some unconfined Chalk groundwaters show the effects of pollution from industrial, domestic and agricultural sources.

===Baseline groundwater quality data in the Lower Greensand===
A summary of the baseline quality of groundwater in the Lower Greensand is below. These data were collected as part of a collaborative project between BGS and the Environment Agency to investigate the [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | baseline quality of groundwater in major UK aquifers]]. The [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | UK baseline study results]] page provides downloads of all the reports produced by the project.

[[Image:SouthLowerGreensandBOX.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]
 
{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Analysis'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-

| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | Ca
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 9.3
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 51.4
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 182
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 84
|-
|Mg
|1.4
|2.8
|7.17
|84
|-
|Na
| 5
|10.1
|111
|84
|-
|K
|0.935
|2.5
|20
|84
|-
|Cl
|9.6
|20
|82
|85
|-
|SO4 
|6.9
|21.6
|182
|84
|-
|HCO3
|6
|148
|339
|81
|-
|NO3.N
|<0.003
|0.196
|16.3
|68
|}
<center>'''Baseline quality data for the Lower Greensand in southern England'''</center>

The groundwater in the Lower Greensand is fresher than water from most other aquifers in the UK, mainly due to the relative purity of the sands and often short residence times. The low salinities of groundwater even in the deep confined parts of the aquifer show that it has been well flushed of any older water. Where the aquifer is confined, the groundwaters are more reducing and have higher iron concentrations.

===Baseline groundwater quality data in the Chalk of Dorset===
A summary of the baseline quality of groundwater in the Chalk of Dorset. These data were collected as part of a collaborative project between BGS and the Environment Agency to investigate the [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | baseline quality of groundwater in major UK aquifers]]. The [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | UK baseline study results]] page provides downloads of all the reports produced by the project.

[[Image:SouthChalk59DorsetBOX.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]
 
{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Analysis'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | Ca
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 37
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 106
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 143
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 59
|-
|Mg
|1.59
|2.5
|19.4
|59
|-
|Na
|6
|11.2
|155
|59
|-
|K
|0.5
|1.7
|7
|33
|-
|Cl
|14
|21
|223
|59
|-
|SO4
|<5
|13.6
|52.2
|60
|-
|HCO3
|107
|271
|324
|33
|-
|NO3.N
|<0.1
|6.6
|12
|59
|}

<center>'''Baseline quality data for the Lower Greensand in southern England'''</center>

The Dorset Chalk contains groundwater predominately of very high quality. However, much of the area is farmed, the long term effects of which have impacted on the natural groundwater quality. The main observed effect of agricultural activity has been the increase in nitrate (NO3.N) and potassium (K) over several decades. Apart from these examples, there is no evidence of widespread contamination from urban and rural wastes or other sources of pollution. Oxidising conditions found in the unconfined aquifer rapidly give way to a reducing environment as the aquifer becomes confined beneath Palaeogene deposits.

===Baseline groundwater quality data in the Palaeogene===
A summary of the baseline quality of groundwater in the Palaeogene is below. These data were collected as part of a collaborative project between BGS and the Environment Agency to investigate the [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | baseline quality of groundwater in major UK aquifers]]. The [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | UK baseline study results]] page provides downloads of all the reports produced by the project.

[[Image:SouthPalaeogeneBOX.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]
 
{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Analysis'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | Ca
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 5.2
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 46.1
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 128
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 26
|-
|Mg
|1.72
|5.35
|15.7
|26
|-
|Na
|11.4
|19
|111
|26
|-
|K
|0.9
|2.4
|15.5
|26
|-
|Cl
|17.4
|33.3
|108
|26
|-
|SO4
|2.7
|27.4
|91.8
|26
|-
|HCO3
|5
|153
|315
|25
|-
|NO3.N
|<0.01
|0.0244
|34.8
|26
|}

<center>'''Baseline quality data for the Palaeogene in southern England'''</center>

The water quality of oxidising Palaeogene groundwaters of near-neutral pH is, in the most part, good. High iron and manganese as well as slightly acidic conditions are characteristics of the Palaeogene groundwaters. In these more acidic groundwaters, mobilisation of some trace metals can occur. Some unconfined waters in the Palaeogene are influenced by agricultural activities, showing elevated nitrate (NO3.N) concentrations. The hydrochemical properties of the groundwaters in the Palaeogene aquifers are primarily determined by natural reactions between recharge water and the Palaeogene host rocks.

===Contact===
Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Southern England summary results

2026-10-21T11:44:14Z

Ajhil: /* Baseline groundwater quality data in the Chalk of Dorset */

Southern England summary results

2026-10-21T11:44:02Z

Ajhil: /* Baseline groundwater quality data in the Lower Greensand */

Southern England summary results

2026-10-21T11:43:53Z

Ajhil: /* Baseline groundwater quality data in the Chalk of the North Downs, Kent and east Surrey */

Southern England summary results

2026-10-21T11:43:40Z

Ajhil: /* Regional summary */

Lancashire and Cheshire Basin summary results

2026-10-21T11:43:19Z

Ajhil: /* Baseline groundwater quality data in the Permo-Triassic sandstone in Manchester */

{{Underconstruction}}
==Lancashire and Cheshire Basins==
===Regional summary===
In Lancashire and Cheshire, 23 sites have been sampled for methane in three aquifers, the main aquifer being Permo-Triassic sandstone. The Environment Agency also holds extensive methane data across the region.

[[Image:LancashireCheshireGeology.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Geology of Lancashire and Cheshire'''</center>

* Permo-Triassic sandstone forms an important aquifer in this region, used extensively for public water supply. Groundwater flow occurs mainly through pore spaces in the rock due to its high porosity, although the presence of fractures is also important. Permo-Triassic sandstone is at the surface along the Lancashire coast and can be up to 600 m thick.
* The two other aquifers sampled for methane are the Millstone Grit and other shallow sand deposits. These are classed as secondary B aquifers and are not used for public water supply.

The shale units present in this area are the Bowland and Craven Groups, which are organic rich mudstones. In the Cheshire Basin, the shale is at its deepest, reaching depths of over 6000 m below OD. The Bowland and Craven Groups are reported to have potential to form a shale gas resource, although this is complicated by Britain's complex tectonic history [https://www.nstauthority.co.uk/regulatory-information/exploration-and-production/onshore/ (Andrews, 2013)].

===Methane in UK groundwater results===
These summaries are based on the results collected from single visits to each site for the purpose of the methane baseline project. The data are summarised for Lancashire and Cheshire as a whole, and also for individual aquifers, where enough data are available.

The blue boxes highlight where summary data are available for baseline groundwater quality in the different aquifers present in this region, and link to the summaries for each region.

<center>
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:NationalMethane_Lancs.jpg|frameless|right|400px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:MethaneChart_Lancs.jpg|frameless|right|510px]]</li>
</ul></div>
</center>

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 140px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Area'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | '''Lancashire and Cheshire'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.0002'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.0025'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.091'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''23'''
|-
|''Sherwood Sandstone''
|0.0002
|0.0018
|0.091
|10
|}
<center>'''Methane samples and concentrations in Lancashire and Cheshire'''</center>

===Environment Agency methane data===
Additional methane data is available from monitoring carried out by the Environment Agency (EA), North West Region, between 1985 and 2012. This sampling was done for different reasons, such as landfill monitoring. Many of the values represent multiple analyses of samples from the same site. The data have been separated into two regions: Lancashire-Cheshire and Cumbria.

<center>
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:methane_ealancs.jpg|frameless|right|450px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:methane_eacumbria.jpg|frameless|right|450px]]</li>
</ul></div>
</center>

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Area'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | '''Lancashire-Cheshire'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | <0.01
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | <0.5
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 132
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 2842
|-
|'''Cumbria'''
|<0.1
|<0.5
| 14.2
| 836
|}

<center>Note: values less than the analytical detection limit have been converted to half the detection limit for the purposes of this statistical summary and graph, but the relevant detection limit is quoted in this table.</center>

===Baseline groundwater quality data in the Permo-Triassic sandstone of Cheshire===
A summary of the baseline quality of groundwater in the Permo-Triassic sandstone of Cheshire is below. These data were collected as part of a collaborative project between BGS and the Environment Agency to investigate the [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | baseline quality of groundwater in major UK aquifers]]. The [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | UK baseline study results]] page provides downloads of all the reports produced by the project.

[[Image:CheshireBOX.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]
 
{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Area'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | Ca
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 4.4
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 74
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 795
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 239
|-
|Mg
| <1
| 21
| 562
|239
|-
|Na
|4
|31
|5600
| 243
|-
|K
|0.25
|3.75
|136
|242
|-
|Cl
|7
| 49
|10000
| 244
|-
|SO4
|<4
|49
|1780
|240
|-
|HCO3
|142
|218
|338
| 23
|-
|NO3.N
|<0.05
|3.3
| 37.5
| 246
|}

<center>'''Baseline quality data for the Permo-Triassic sandstone in Cheshire'''</center>

The quality of groundwater in the Permo-Triassic sandstone is determined by natural reactions between rainwater and the bedrock, which creates a variable baseline. Chemical reactions take place during recharge, the most important being mineral dissolution and precipitation. The baseline in Lancashire and Cheshire has been modified by diffuse pollution including agricultural fertilisers, which has led to locally high levels of nitrate (NO3.N), potassium (K) and sodium (Na). Along the Mersey estuary, the ingress of saline water also has an impact on groundwater chemistry.

===Baseline groundwater quality data in the Permo-Triassic sandstone in Manchester===
A summary of the baseline quality of groundwater in Permo-Triassic sandstone in Manchester is presented below. These data were collected as part of a collaborative project between BGS and the Environment Agency to investigate the [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | baseline quality of groundwater in major UK aquifers]]. The [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | UK baseline study results]] page provides downloads of all the reports produced by the project.

[[Image:NorthWestPTSst90BOX1.jpg|frameless|center|800px|]]
 
{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Area'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | Ca
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 12
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 86.2
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 350
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 90
|-
|Mg
|2.5
|26.8
|122
|90
|-
|Na
|8.4
| 133
|3360
|90
|-
|K
|0.99
|4.85
|30
|90
|-
|Cl
| 9
|185
| 5400
|88
|-
|SO4
|<5
|82.9
|666
|90
|-
|HCO3
|40
|316
|1310
|89
|-
|NO3.N
|<0.003
|1.61
|33.4
|90
|-
|Fe
|<
|1050
|9600
|85
|}

<center>'''Baseline quality data for the Permo-Triassic sandstone in Manchester'''</center>

The groundwaters of the Permo-Triassic aquifer of Manchester display a wide range of chemical characteristics with concentrations for most elements varying over several orders of magnitude. These characteristics are determined largely by natural reactions between the groundwater and the rocks through which it passes. This baseline has been modified by diffuse pollutants including agricultural fertilisers leading locally to high nitrate (NO3.N) and increases in other major elements such as potassium (K), sodium (Na) and sulphate (SO4). Most chemical parameters are highly variable due to the complex geology and the presence of drift deposits, which differ in thickness and type. These drift deposits have a significant effect on recharge of the aquifer but provide a degree of protection from diffuse or point source pollution.

===Contact===
Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Lancashire and Cheshire Basin summary results

2026-10-21T11:43:06Z

Ajhil: /* Baseline groundwater quality data in the Permo-Triassic sandstone of Cheshire */

Lancashire and Cheshire Basin summary results

2026-10-21T11:42:47Z

Ajhil:

South Wales summary results

2026-10-21T11:42:16Z

Ajhil:

{{Underconstruction}}
==South Wales==
===Regional summary===
In South Wales, 25 sites have been sampled for methane in the two main aquifers, the Carboniferous limestone and the Coal Measures sandstones.
 
[[Image:SouthWalesGeology_v2.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]
<center>'''Geology of South Wales'''</center>
 
* In the UK, the Carboniferous limestone is a principal aquifer and groundwater flows rapidly through a network of fractures, conduits and caves. In South Wales, this aquifer is not used for public supply, although it provides many private supplies. The Carboniferous limestone outcrops south of the coalfield and has a maximum thickness of 425 m.
* The Coal Measures sandstones in South Wales are very hard and dense, and groundwater will only tend to flow through fractures. Due to mining subsidence, there are zones of increased fracturing, and therefore increased water storage and flow. This aquifer is classed as a secondary A aquifer by the Environment Agency and is not used for public water supply.

The shale unit present in this area is the Marros Group, which consists of siliceous mudstones and local quartz rich sandstones and conglomerates. The maximum height of the top of the Marros is about 400 m above OD at outcrop in the west, but deepens towards the east to reach depths of over 2500 m below OD.

===Methane in UK groundwater results===
These summary results are from single sampling visits to each site as part of the methane baseline project. The data are summarised for the South Wales region as a whole and also for individual aquifers, where enough data are available.

<center>
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:MethaneSamplesSouthWales.jpg|frameless|left|470px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:MethaneChart.jpg|frameless|right|510px]]</li>
</ul></div>
</center>

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Area'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | '''South Wales'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''<0.0001'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.032'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.483'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''25'''
|-
| ''Carboniferous limestone''
| <0.0001
| 0.032
| 0.483
| 11
|-
| ''Coal Measures''
|<0.0001
|0.034
|0.216
|13
|}

<center>'''Methane samples and concentrations in South Wales'''</center>
<center>Note: values less than the analytical detection limit have been converted to half the detection limit for the purposes of this statistical summary and graph, but the relevant detection limit is quoted in the table above.</center>

===Baseline groundwater quality data===
No baseline data are available for the Carboniferous limestone or the Coal Measures in this region.

===Contact===
Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

South Wales summary results

2026-10-21T11:42:05Z

Ajhil: /* Regional summary */

{{Underconstruction}}
==South Wales==
===Regional summary===
In South Wales, 25 sites have been sampled for methane in the two main aquifers, the Carboniferous limestone and the Coal Measures sandstones.
 
[[Image:SouthWalesGeology_v2.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]
<center>'''Geology of South Wales'''</center>

* In the UK, the Carboniferous limestone is a principal aquifer and groundwater flows rapidly through a network of fractures, conduits and caves. In South Wales, this aquifer is not used for public supply, although it provides many private supplies. The Carboniferous limestone outcrops south of the coalfield and has a maximum thickness of 425 m.
* The Coal Measures sandstones in South Wales are very hard and dense, and groundwater will only tend to flow through fractures. Due to mining subsidence, there are zones of increased fracturing, and therefore increased water storage and flow. This aquifer is classed as a secondary A aquifer by the Environment Agency and is not used for public water supply.

The shale unit present in this area is the Marros Group, which consists of siliceous mudstones and local quartz rich sandstones and conglomerates. The maximum height of the top of the Marros is about 400 m above OD at outcrop in the west, but deepens towards the east to reach depths of over 2500 m below OD.

===Methane in UK groundwater results===
These summary results are from single sampling visits to each site as part of the methane baseline project. The data are summarised for the South Wales region as a whole and also for individual aquifers, where enough data are available.

<center>
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:MethaneSamplesSouthWales.jpg|frameless|left|470px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:MethaneChart.jpg|frameless|right|510px]]</li>
</ul></div>
</center>

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Area'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | '''South Wales'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''<0.0001'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.032'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.483'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''25'''
|-
| ''Carboniferous limestone''
| <0.0001
| 0.032
| 0.483
| 11
|-
| ''Coal Measures''
|<0.0001
|0.034
|0.216
|13
|}

<center>'''Methane samples and concentrations in South Wales'''</center>
<center>Note: values less than the analytical detection limit have been converted to half the detection limit for the purposes of this statistical summary and graph, but the relevant detection limit is quoted in the table above.</center>

===Baseline groundwater quality data===
No baseline data are available for the Carboniferous limestone or the Coal Measures in this region.

===Contact===
Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

South Wales summary results

2026-10-21T11:41:58Z

Ajhil:

{{Underconstruction}}
==South Wales==
===Regional summary===
In South Wales, 25 sites have been sampled for methane in the two main aquifers, the Carboniferous limestone and the Coal Measures sandstones.
 
[[Image:SouthWalesGeology_v2.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]
<center>'''Geology of South Wales'''</center>

* In the UK, the Carboniferous limestone is a principal aquifer and groundwater flows rapidly through a network of fractures, conduits and caves. In South Wales, this aquifer is not used for public supply, although it provides many private supplies. The Carboniferous limestone outcrops south of the coalfield and has a maximum thickness of 425 m.
* The Coal Measures sandstones in South Wales are very hard and dense, and groundwater will only tend to flow through fractures. Due to mining subsidence, there are zones of increased fracturing, and therefore increased water storage and flow. This aquifer is classed as a secondary A aquifer by the Environment Agency and is not used for public water supply.

The shale unit present in this area is the Marros Group, which consists of siliceous mudstones and local quartz rich sandstones and conglomerates. The maximum height of the top of the Marros is about 400 m above OD at outcrop in the west, but deepens towards the east to reach depths of over 2500 m below OD.

===Methane in UK groundwater results===
These summary results are from single sampling visits to each site as part of the methane baseline project. The data are summarised for the South Wales region as a whole and also for individual aquifers, where enough data are available.

<center>
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:MethaneSamplesSouthWales.jpg|frameless|left|470px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:MethaneChart.jpg|frameless|right|510px]]</li>
</ul></div>
</center>

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Area'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | '''South Wales'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''<0.0001'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.032'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.483'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''25'''
|-
| ''Carboniferous limestone''
| <0.0001
| 0.032
| 0.483
| 11
|-
| ''Coal Measures''
|<0.0001
|0.034
|0.216
|13
|}

<center>'''Methane samples and concentrations in South Wales'''</center>
<center>Note: values less than the analytical detection limit have been converted to half the detection limit for the purposes of this statistical summary and graph, but the relevant detection limit is quoted in the table above.</center>

===Baseline groundwater quality data===
No baseline data are available for the Carboniferous limestone or the Coal Measures in this region.

===Contact===
Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Category:Groundwater and shale gas

2026-10-21T11:41:18Z

Ajhil: /* National methane baseline survey: results summary */

{{Underconstruction}}

==National methane baseline survey: results summary==
===Summary results===
Since the beginning of the national methane baseline survey in 2012, a total of 248 new groundwater methane samples have been collected and analysed from five areas:

* [[South Wales summary results|South Wales]]
* [[East Midlands summary results|East Midlands Province]]
* [[Lancashire and Cheshire Basin summary results|Lancashire and Cheshire Basin]]
* [[Cumbria and Northumberland summary results|Cumbria and Northumberland]]
* [[Southern England summary results|Southern England]] comprising Kent, East and West Sussex, Surrey and Hampshire

A number of groundwater methane values also exist for other areas from previous research projects, in particular [[Central and Southern Scotland summary results|central and southern Scotland]] and parts of south Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Lincolnshire and areas around London. These datasets have been combined to provide a summary of methane concentrations in groundwater in these areas.

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Area'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Concentrations (mg/l)'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
|
| '''Minimum'''
| '''Median'''
| '''Maximum'''
|-
| Central/southern Scotland
| <0.0001
| 0.0036
| 1.68
| 31
|-
| Lancashire and Cheshire Basins
| 0.0002
| 0.0025
| 0.091
| 23
|-
| East Midlands Province
| <0.00005
| 0.0009
| 1.32
| 93
|-
| Southern England
| <0.00005
| 0.0013
| 4.72
| 251
|-
| South Wales
| <0.0001
| 0.032
| 0.0483
| 25
|-
| Cumbria and Northumberland
| <0.0002
| 0.00065
| 1.434
| 16
|-
| Cumbria (Environment Agency data)
| <0.1
| <0.5
| 14.2
| 836
|-
| Lancashire and Cheshire (Environment Agency data)
| <0.01
| <0.5
| 132
| 2842
|}

<center>'''Summary of the methane baseline results'''</center>

Methane baseline samples have been collected from potable water supplies — either drinking water or groundwater quality monitoring boreholes. None of the samples in the aquifers used for public water supply have exceeded the explosive limit for methane. For additional information on research carried out by BGS on methane in groundwater apart from baseline surveys, please see our Methane in UK groundwater research overview and the following key publications:

* [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/599/ The hydrogeochemistry of methane : evidence from English groundwaters] Darling and Gooddy (2006)
* [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/4867/ The potential for methane emissions from groundwaters of the UK] Gooddy and Darling (2005)

===Methane in UK Groundwater===
Click on the regions on the map below to see initial results from the survey. In addition to methane data, there is a regional overview of the geology, aquifers and shale gas source rocks present. Areas with adequate methane data have been split by aquifer, in addition to a regional summary. Using data collected as part of the BGS and Environment Agency's, [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | natural (baseline) chemistry of groundwaters in England and Wales]] project, there is also a brief overview of the relevant aquifer’s groundwater quality. Further information on chemical indicators and trace elements that are not included in the summary can be found in the individual baseline reports.

Click on the regions on the map below to see results from the survey and more detail can be found in the
[https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/514557/ summary report] and recent [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969717312998/ publication].
 
 
[[Image:MethanemapUK_v2.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

===Contact===
Please contact [mailto:pls@bgs.ac.uk Pauline Smedley] for further information.
[[category:Hydrogeology| ]]

East Midlands summary results

2026-10-21T11:40:11Z

Ajhil: /* Baseline groundwater quality data in the Chalk */

{{Underconstruction}}
==East Midlands Province==
===Regional summary===
In the East Midlands Province, 93 sites have been sampled, in the three main aquifers: the Lincolnshire Limestone, Permo-Triassic sandstone and Chalk.

[[Image:EastMidlandsGeology.jpg|frameless|center|700px|]]

<center>'''Geology of the East Midlands Province'''</center>

* The Lincolnshire Limestone is a hard, fractured aquifer and groundwater flows almost entirely by fracture flow along bedding planes. Abstraction for public water supply takes place mainly in the confined region, where the groundwater is artesian. It has a maximum thickness of 40 m in south Lincolnshire.
* Permo-Triassic sandstone is the UK's second most important aquifer and has a high porosity, which means the majority of flow occurs through the pore spaces in the rock. The water from this aquifer is generally of good quality and is exploited for a wide range of uses. It has a maximum thickness of 180 m in Yorkshire.
* The Chalk aquifer of Yorkshire and Humberside is a productive fractured aquifer, which outcrops in the Yorkshire Wolds. It has a total thickness of 430 m. A large proportion of public water supply in the region is derived from this aquifer.

There are a number of shale units present in this area, including the Kimmeridge, Ampthill, Lias, Bowland and Craven Groups. The Bowland and Craven Groups are reported to have the potential to form a shale gas resource [https://www.nstauthority.co.uk/regulatory-information/exploration-and-production/onshore/ (Andrews, 2013)] in addition to the Kimmeridge Clay, as reported in [https://itportal.decc.gov.uk/web_files/promote/2015/regional_reports/Promote_UK_Shalegas_2015.pdf/ DECC (2012)] 3.7 KB pdf. The Lias, Kellaways, Oxford Clay and Osgodby Formation are thought to be too immature for shale gas.

===Methane in UK groundwater results===
These summaries are based on the results collected from single visits to each site for the purpose of the methane baseline project. The data are summarised for the Midlands and Yorkshire as a whole, and also for individual aquifers, where enough data are available.

The blue boxes highlight where summary data are available for baseline groundwater quality in the different aquifers present in this region, and link to the summaries for each region.

<center>
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:NationalMethane_EastMids.jpg|frameless|right|400px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:MethaneChart_Mids_Yorks.jpg|frameless|right|510px]]</li>
</ul></div>
</center>

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 140px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Area'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | '''East Midlands Province'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''<0.00005'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''0.0009'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''1.32'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | '''93'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | ''Lincolnshire Limestone''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 0.00005
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 0.0026
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 0.032
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 13
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 200px;" | ''Sherwood Sandstone''
|<0.00005
| 0.0005
|0.465
| 34
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | ''Lincolnshire Chalk''
|0.00007
|0.0009
|0.0047
|23
|}
</center>

<center>'''Methane samples and concentrations in the East Midlands Province'''</center>
<center>Note: values less than the analytical detection limit have been converted to half the detection limit for the purposes of this statistical summary and graph, but the relevant detection limit is quoted in the table above.</center>

===Baseline groundwater quality data in the Permo-Triassic sandstone===
A summary of the baseline quality of groundwater in the Permo-Triassic sandstone is below. These data were collected as part of a collaborative project between BGS and the Environment Agency to investigate the [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | baseline quality of groundwater in major UK aquifers]]. The [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | UK baseline study results]] page provides downloads of all the reports produced by the project.

[[Image:BoxWhiskers_Plot.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]
 
{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Analysis'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | Ca
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 55.3
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 140
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 556
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 43
|-
|Mg
|20.6
|34.7
|133
| 43
|-
|Na
|7
|35.3
|402
|43
|-
|K
|<0.6
|4
|13.5
|43
|-
|Cl
|12.5
|36.6
|307
|43
|-
|SO4
| 6.1
|170
|1760
|43
|-
|HCO3
|234
|333
|498
| 43
|-
|NO3.N
|<0.0025
|0.053
|41.1
|43
|}

<center>'''Baseline quality data for the Permo-Triassic sandstone in the Midlands'''</center>

The quality of groundwater in the Permo-Triassics sandstone is determined by natural reactions between rainwater and the bedrock, which creates a variable baseline. Nitrate (NO3.N) and chloride (Cl) are elevated due to agricultural and industrial practices, and the groundwater can have a higher salinity in the confined part of the aquifer.

===Baseline groundwater quality data in the Lincolnshire Limestone===
A summary of the baseline quality of groundwater in the Lincolnshire Limestone is below. These data were collected as part of a collaborative project between BGS and the Environment Agency to investigate the [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | baseline quality of groundwater in major UK aquifers]]. The [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | UK baseline study results]] page provides downloads of all the reports produced by the project.

[[Image:BoxWhiskers_Plot_Lincs.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]
 
{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Analysis'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | Ca
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 1.53
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 144
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 203
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 62
|-
|Mg
|0.5
|7.3
|75.5
|62
|-
|Na
|9
|23.7
|4030
|62
|-
|K
|<1
|2.37
|71.5
|62
|-
|Cl
|21
|57.1
|6250
|62
|-
|SO4
|<0.2
|110
|200
|62
|-
|HCO3
|251
|294
|606
|23
|-
|NO3.N
|<0.003
|4.7
|20.7
|37
|}

<center>'''Baseline quality data for the Lincolnshire Limestone in the Midlands'''</center>

In the Lincolnshire Limestone, the quality of the water varies considerably between the unconfined and confined regions. In the recharge areas, the water is fresh, although impacted by agricultural pollution, whereas the confined groundwaters are old and reducing, and can be of poor quality.

===Baseline groundwater quality data in the Chalk===
A summary of the baseline quality of groundwater in the Chalk is below. These data were collected as part of a collaborative project between BGS and the Environment Agency to investigate the [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | baseline quality of groundwater in major UK aquifers]]. The [[Baseline chemistry of groundwater in UK aquifers | UK baseline study results]] page provides downloads of all the reports produced by the project.

[[Image:BoxWhiskers_Plot_Chalk.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]
 

{|class="wikitable" style="background-color:#F0F8FF; margin:auto;"
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Analysis'''
| colspan="3" scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | <center>'''Concentration (mg/l)'''</center>
| rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Number of Samples'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Minimum'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 50px; background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Median'''
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" style="background-color: #042e3f;" | '''Maximum'''
|-
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | Ca
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 60.8
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 105
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 252
| ! scope="col" style="width: 100px;" | 149
|-
|Mg
|0.83
| 3.43
|626
| 149
|-
|Na
|4.7
| 11.8
| 4910
|149
|-
|K
|0.26
|1.42
|155
| 148
|-
|Cl
|11.2
|27.9
|8890
|149
|-
|SO4
|<5
| 29.7
|1290
| 149
|-
|HCO3
|120
|241
| 464
|148
|-
|NO3.N
| <0.2
|8.01
|33.2
| 148
|}

<center>'''Baseline quality data for the Chalk in the Midlands'''</center>

The quality of groundwater in the Chalk aquifer of Yorkshire and Humberside is very variable due to a number of geochemical processes. The Chalk groundwater is generally hard and the unconfined areas have been impacted by seawater intrusion and human activities, such as pollution from agriculture. Groundwater in the confined and semi-confined sections of the aquifer has some protection from the effects of pollution.

===Contact===
Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

East Midlands summary results

2026-10-21T11:39:48Z

Ajhil:

East Midlands summary results

2026-10-21T11:37:00Z

Ajhil:

Manganese (Mn) in Scottish Groundwater

2026-10-21T11:01:51Z

Ajhil:

Manganese (Mn) in Scottish Groundwater

2026-10-21T11:01:17Z

Ajhil: /* Controls of Mn in groundwater */

{{Underconstruction}}
===Manganese (Mn) in Scottish Groundwater===
'''Background''' 
Excessive Mn concentrations can result in metallic tasting water, staining of clothes, dishes, and products such as paper or plastics, and reduced water pressure and flow in pipes from accumulation of Mn oxides (Sly et al., 1990). They have also been found to have an adverse effect on human health. In adults, exposure to elevated Mn concentrations in drinking water has been associated with manganism, a Parkinson-like disorder, and in children, intellectual function and hyperactive behaviour. Because of the association between Mn intake and neurological effects the World Health Organisation(WHO) current guideline concentration for Mn in drinking water is 0.4 mg l-1 (World Health Organisation, 2008).

===Controls of Mn in groundwater===
The occurrence and concentration of Mn in groundwater are controlled by many factors, the main ones being rock geochemistry, water chemistry and microbiological activity. Some rock types, such as mafic and ultramafic rocks, shale, greywacke and limestone, contain high concentrations of Mn, which can lead to elevated concentrations in soil and sediment through weathering processes. Water chemistry, in particular pH, redox potential (Eh), dissolved oxygen (DO), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC), is instrumental in mobilising Mn and controlling its speciation and concentration in the water environment.

<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[Image:Mn_Scotland_1.jpg|center|500px]] </li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[Image:Bedrock_Aquifers.jpg|frameless|center|380px|]] </li>
</ul></div>

<center>''(left)'' '''Figure 1'''    Mn concentrations in Scotland.'''</center>
<center>''(right)'' '''Figure 2'''    Bedrock aquifer units.'''</center>

[[Image:Concentrations.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 3'''    Manganese concentrations in groundwater and geology in Scotland.'''</center>

===Recent Research on Mn in Scotland===
Research using data by Baseline Scotland [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/9665/ (Hominik et al. 2010)] assessed the concentrations of Mn in Scottish groundwater, between different aquifer types, and examined the controls on elevated Mn concentrations in groundwater.

This research developed a quality-controlled dataset of groundwater Mn concentrations across Scotland with data for 475 sites.

===Results===
* Analysis of this dataset showed that elevated Mn concentrations (> 0.05 mg/L) occurred in 30% of the groundwater samples (Figure 1), particularly in superficial, Carboniferous, and northern Devonian aquifers (Figures 2 and 3); and 9% of sites had concentrations above the WHO health drinking water limit (0.4 mg/L).
* The principal controls on Mn concentrations in groundwater in Scotland are redox conditions and pH, with some influence from Fe behaviour. Redox conditions exercise the strongest control.
* The results highlight the potential risk of exposure to excessive Mn in drinking water for consumers using private water supplies and indicate the need for appropriate methods for sampling and testing groundwater for Mn not only in Scotland but worldwide.

===References and resources===
Homoncik, S, MacDonald, A M, Heal, K V, Ó Dochartaigh, B É, and Ngwenya, B T. 2010. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/9665/ Manganese concentrations in Scottish groundwater], ''Science of the Total Environment'', 408; 2467–2473.

MacDonald, A M and Ó Dochartaigh, B É. 2005. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/11335/ Baseline Scotland; an overview of available groundwater chemistry data for Scotland], ''British Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/05/239N'', British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham.

MacDonald, A M, Robins, N S, Ball, D F and Ó Dochartaigh, B É. 2005. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/12230/ An overview of groundwater in Scotland], Scottish Journal of Geology, 41; 3–11.

Robins, N S. 2002. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/12305/ Groundwater quality in Scotland: major ion chemistry of the key groundwater bodies], ''Science of the Total Environment'', 294; 1–3; 41–56.

Sly, L J, Hodgkinson, M C and Arunpairojana, V. 1990. Deposition of manganese in a drinking water distribution system, ''Applied Environmental Microbiology'', 56; 628–639.

[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

===Controls of Mn in groundwater===
[[Image:MnConcentrations.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1'''    Mn concentrations in Scotland. BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:Bedrock aquifer units.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Bedrock aquifer units. BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:Manganese concentrations.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 3'''    Manganese concentrations in groundwater and geology in Scotland. BGS © UKRI.</center>

The occurrence and concentration of Mn in groundwater are controlled by many factors, the main ones being rock geochemistry, water chemistry and microbiological activity. Some rock types, such as mafic and ultramafic rocks, shale, greywacke and limestone, contain high concentrations of Mn, which can lead to elevated concentrations in soil and sediment through weathering processes. Water chemistry, in particular pH, redox potential (Eh), dissolved oxygen (DO), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC), is instrumental in mobilising Mn and controlling its speciation and concentration in the water environment.

===Recent Research on Mn in Scotland===
Research using data by Baseline Scotland [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/9665/ (Hominik et al. 2010)] assessed the concentrations of Mn in Scottish groundwater, between different aquifer types, and examined the controls on elevated Mn concentrations in groundwater.

This research developed a quality-controlled dataset of groundwater Mn concentrations across Scotland with data for 475 sites.

===Results===
* Analysis of this dataset showed that elevated Mn concentrations (> 0.05 mg/L) occurred in 30% of the groundwater samples (Figure 1), particularly in superficial, Carboniferous, and northern Devonian aquifers (Figures 2 and 3); and 9% of sites had concentrations above the WHO health drinking water limit (0.4 mg/L).
* The principal controls on Mn concentrations in groundwater in Scotland are redox conditions and pH, with some influence from Fe behaviour. Redox conditions exercise the strongest control.
* The results highlight the potential risk of exposure to excessive Mn in drinking water for consumers using private water supplies and indicate the need for appropriate methods for sampling and testing groundwater for Mn not only in Scotland but worldwide.

===References and resources===
Homoncik, S, MacDonald, A M, Heal, K V, Ó Dochartaigh, B É, and Ngwenya, B T. 2010. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/9665/ Manganese concentrations in Scottish groundwater], ''Science of the Total Environment'', 408; 2467–2473.

MacDonald, A M and Ó Dochartaigh, B É. 2005. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/11335/ Baseline Scotland; an overview of available groundwater chemistry data for Scotland], ''British Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/05/239N'', British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham.

MacDonald, A M, Robins, N S, Ball, D F and Ó Dochartaigh, B É. 2005. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/12230/ An overview of groundwater in Scotland], Scottish Journal of Geology, 41; 3–11.

Robins, N S. 2002. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/12305/ Groundwater quality in Scotland: major ion chemistry of the key groundwater bodies], ''Science of the Total Environment'', 294; 1–3; 41–56.

Sly, L J, Hodgkinson, M C and Arunpairojana, V. 1990. Deposition of manganese in a drinking water distribution system, ''Applied Environmental Microbiology'', 56; 628–639.

[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Manganese (Mn) in Scottish Groundwater

2026-10-21T11:01:01Z

Ajhil: /* Controls of Mn in groundwater */

{{Underconstruction}}
===Manganese (Mn) in Scottish Groundwater===
'''Background''' 
Excessive Mn concentrations can result in metallic tasting water, staining of clothes, dishes, and products such as paper or plastics, and reduced water pressure and flow in pipes from accumulation of Mn oxides (Sly et al., 1990). They have also been found to have an adverse effect on human health. In adults, exposure to elevated Mn concentrations in drinking water has been associated with manganism, a Parkinson-like disorder, and in children, intellectual function and hyperactive behaviour. Because of the association between Mn intake and neurological effects the World Health Organisation(WHO) current guideline concentration for Mn in drinking water is 0.4 mg l-1 (World Health Organisation, 2008).

===Controls of Mn in groundwater===
[[Image:MnConcentrations.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

The occurrence and concentration of Mn in groundwater are controlled by many factors, the main ones being rock geochemistry, water chemistry and microbiological activity. Some rock types, such as mafic and ultramafic rocks, shale, greywacke and limestone, contain high concentrations of Mn, which can lead to elevated concentrations in soil and sediment through weathering processes. Water chemistry, in particular pH, redox potential (Eh), dissolved oxygen (DO), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC), is instrumental in mobilising Mn and controlling its speciation and concentration in the water environment.

<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[Image:Mn_Scotland_1.jpg|center|500px]] </li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[Image:Bedrock_Aquifers.jpg|frameless|center|380px|]] </li>
</ul></div>

<center>''(left)'' '''Figure 1'''    Mn concentrations in Scotland.'''</center>
<center>''(right)'' '''Figure 2'''    Bedrock aquifer units.'''</center>

[[Image:Concentrations.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 3'''    Manganese concentrations in groundwater and geology in Scotland.'''</center>

===Recent Research on Mn in Scotland===
Research using data by Baseline Scotland [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/9665/ (Hominik et al. 2010)] assessed the concentrations of Mn in Scottish groundwater, between different aquifer types, and examined the controls on elevated Mn concentrations in groundwater.

This research developed a quality-controlled dataset of groundwater Mn concentrations across Scotland with data for 475 sites.

===Results===
* Analysis of this dataset showed that elevated Mn concentrations (> 0.05 mg/L) occurred in 30% of the groundwater samples (Figure 1), particularly in superficial, Carboniferous, and northern Devonian aquifers (Figures 2 and 3); and 9% of sites had concentrations above the WHO health drinking water limit (0.4 mg/L).
* The principal controls on Mn concentrations in groundwater in Scotland are redox conditions and pH, with some influence from Fe behaviour. Redox conditions exercise the strongest control.
* The results highlight the potential risk of exposure to excessive Mn in drinking water for consumers using private water supplies and indicate the need for appropriate methods for sampling and testing groundwater for Mn not only in Scotland but worldwide.

===References and resources===
Homoncik, S, MacDonald, A M, Heal, K V, Ó Dochartaigh, B É, and Ngwenya, B T. 2010. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/9665/ Manganese concentrations in Scottish groundwater], ''Science of the Total Environment'', 408; 2467–2473.

MacDonald, A M and Ó Dochartaigh, B É. 2005. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/11335/ Baseline Scotland; an overview of available groundwater chemistry data for Scotland], ''British Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/05/239N'', British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham.

MacDonald, A M, Robins, N S, Ball, D F and Ó Dochartaigh, B É. 2005. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/12230/ An overview of groundwater in Scotland], Scottish Journal of Geology, 41; 3–11.

Robins, N S. 2002. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/12305/ Groundwater quality in Scotland: major ion chemistry of the key groundwater bodies], ''Science of the Total Environment'', 294; 1–3; 41–56.

Sly, L J, Hodgkinson, M C and Arunpairojana, V. 1990. Deposition of manganese in a drinking water distribution system, ''Applied Environmental Microbiology'', 56; 628–639.

[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

===Controls of Mn in groundwater===
[[Image:MnConcentrations.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 1'''    Mn concentrations in Scotland. BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:Bedrock aquifer units.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 2'''    Bedrock aquifer units. BGS © UKRI.</center>

[[Image:Manganese concentrations.jpg|frameless|center|500px|]]

<center>'''Figure 3'''    Manganese concentrations in groundwater and geology in Scotland. BGS © UKRI.</center>

The occurrence and concentration of Mn in groundwater are controlled by many factors, the main ones being rock geochemistry, water chemistry and microbiological activity. Some rock types, such as mafic and ultramafic rocks, shale, greywacke and limestone, contain high concentrations of Mn, which can lead to elevated concentrations in soil and sediment through weathering processes. Water chemistry, in particular pH, redox potential (Eh), dissolved oxygen (DO), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC), is instrumental in mobilising Mn and controlling its speciation and concentration in the water environment.

===Recent Research on Mn in Scotland===
Research using data by Baseline Scotland [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/9665/ (Hominik et al. 2010)] assessed the concentrations of Mn in Scottish groundwater, between different aquifer types, and examined the controls on elevated Mn concentrations in groundwater.

This research developed a quality-controlled dataset of groundwater Mn concentrations across Scotland with data for 475 sites.

===Results===
* Analysis of this dataset showed that elevated Mn concentrations (> 0.05 mg/L) occurred in 30% of the groundwater samples (Figure 1), particularly in superficial, Carboniferous, and northern Devonian aquifers (Figures 2 and 3); and 9% of sites had concentrations above the WHO health drinking water limit (0.4 mg/L).
* The principal controls on Mn concentrations in groundwater in Scotland are redox conditions and pH, with some influence from Fe behaviour. Redox conditions exercise the strongest control.
* The results highlight the potential risk of exposure to excessive Mn in drinking water for consumers using private water supplies and indicate the need for appropriate methods for sampling and testing groundwater for Mn not only in Scotland but worldwide.

===References and resources===
Homoncik, S, MacDonald, A M, Heal, K V, Ó Dochartaigh, B É, and Ngwenya, B T. 2010. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/9665/ Manganese concentrations in Scottish groundwater], ''Science of the Total Environment'', 408; 2467–2473.

MacDonald, A M and Ó Dochartaigh, B É. 2005. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/11335/ Baseline Scotland; an overview of available groundwater chemistry data for Scotland], ''British Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/05/239N'', British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham.

MacDonald, A M, Robins, N S, Ball, D F and Ó Dochartaigh, B É. 2005. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/12230/ An overview of groundwater in Scotland], Scottish Journal of Geology, 41; 3–11.

Robins, N S. 2002. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/12305/ Groundwater quality in Scotland: major ion chemistry of the key groundwater bodies], ''Science of the Total Environment'', 294; 1–3; 41–56.

Sly, L J, Hodgkinson, M C and Arunpairojana, V. 1990. Deposition of manganese in a drinking water distribution system, ''Applied Environmental Microbiology'', 56; 628–639.

[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry data

2026-10-21T11:00:37Z

Ajhil: /* Baseline Scotland data summaries */

{{Underconstruction}}
==Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry data==
Collecting new data on groundwater chemistry in Scotland to provide a scientific foundation to Scottish, UK and European water quality policy.

===About Baseline Scotland===
[[Image:Sepa_logo1.jpg|frameless|right|200px|]]
Baseline Scotland is a joint project between BGS and [https://www.sepa.org.uk/ SEPA ]which is providing new groundwater chemistry data for Scotland. This new data provides essential information to sustainably manage Scotland’s water environment, as required by Scottish, UK and European water legislation, (such as the [[Glossary of groundwater and groundwater-related terms#Water Framework Directive | Water Framework Directive)]]. Before Baseline Scotland very little reliable groundwater chemistry data existed, particularly for trace elements.

Systematic groundwater sampling surveys were carried out across all the major bedrock aquifers in Scotland between 2005 and 2011, as well as many superficial aquifers. Standardised sampling techniques were used to characterise the groundwater chemistry in detail and investigate how long since groundwater was recharged from rainfall; how groundwater has interacted with the aquifer rocks; and whether there is any groundwater pollution. The results from most parts of Scotland have already been reported in [[Baseline Scotland reports | detailed reports]]. Summary results for each major aquifer group in Scotland are presented in [[Scotland's aquifers and groundwater bodies | Scotland’s Aquifers and Groundwater Bodies]] (2015). Detailed results for the final areas, and a detailed overview of the baseline groundwater chemistry of Scotland, will be reported soon.

===The aims of Baseline Scotland are:===
* To characterise the natural background groundwater quality in the main aquifers of Scotland, by carrying out new detailed groundwater chemistry sampling.
*To provide a scientific foundation to Scottish, UK and European water quality policy and groundwater management and protection, with an emphasis on the protection and sustainable development of high quality groundwater.

===Outputs===
* Summarised groundwater chemistry data for major bedrock aquifers in Scotland.

===Spatial coverage of groundwater chemistry data: Scotland===
Before the Baseline Scotland project began there was little information on natural groundwater chemistry in Scotland. Existing data was mainly old, of variable quality, limited (often to a few major ions only), and skewed to areas of groundwater contamination, particularly related to mining, and to the more productive Scottish aquifers, in particular the Devonian aquifers of Fife, Strathmore and Morayshire, and the Permian aquifer in Dumfries. Since the start of the Baseline Scotland project, 268 new groundwater samples have been collected from aquifers across Scotland. A further 479 samples collected during other projects since 2001, using equally rigorous sampling techniques to the Baseline samples, have been incorporated into the Baseline dataset.

[[Image:AllBaselineSamples-Nov15.jpg|frameless|center|400px|]]

<center>'''Spatial coverage of Baseline Scotland groundwater chemistry data: for bedrock aquifers (blue circles) and Quaternary aquifers (green squares). Backdrop is 1:625 000 scale geological map.'''</center>

===Baseline sampling===
The Baseline sampling surveys collected new data on groundwater chemistry, stable isotopes and residence times. Rigorous well head measurements (of parameters including dissolved oxygen, redox potential, SEC and bicarbonate) were combined with collecting samples for analysis of major, minor and trace ions; stable isotopes (δH2, δ18O and δ13C); dissolved organic carbon; and where possible, CFC (chlorofluorocarbon), SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride), and other dissolved gases such as CH4 (methane).

* [[Baseline sampling and analysis methodology | Technical details of the Baseline sampling methodology]]

<center>
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:Baseline_photo3.jpg|frameless|left|285px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:Baseline_photo2.jpg|frameless|right|350px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:Baseline_photo1.jpg|frameless|right|350px]]</li>
</ul></div>
</center>

<center>''(top left)'' '''Measuring wellhead chemistry. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>
<center>''(centre)'' '''Sampling groundwater. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>
<center>''(bottom)'' '''Sampling groundwater. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>

===Baseline Scotland data===
Twelve major bedrock aquifer units have been defined across Scotland, which have distinctly different controls on baseline groundwater chemistry – largely related to geological age and rock type. The baseline groundwater chemistry of each of these aquifer units is reported separately. Click on the data links below to view summaries of baseline groundwater chemistry data already reported for Scotland.
 
[[Image:BaselineBedrock.jpg|frameless|center|350px|]]
<center>'''Major bedrock aquifer units in Scotland, which show distinctly different baseline groundwater chemistry.'''</center>

===Baseline Scotland data summaries===
* [[Aberdeenshire | Aberdeenshire data]]
* [[Midland Valley | Midland Valley data]]
* [[Moray Firth | Moray Firth data]]
* [[Southern Scotland | Southern Scotland data]]
* [[Strathmore | Strathmore data]]
* [[Manganese (Mn) in Scottish Groundwater | Manganese in Scottish Groundwater]]

A summary of the baseline groundwater chemistry in each major bedrock aquifer in Scotland is presented in [[Scotland's aquifers and groundwater bodies | Scotland’s Aquifers and Groundwater Bodies]].

===Contact===
Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]

Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry data

2026-10-21T11:00:13Z

Ajhil: /* Baseline Scotland data summaries */

{{Underconstruction}}
==Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry data==
Collecting new data on groundwater chemistry in Scotland to provide a scientific foundation to Scottish, UK and European water quality policy.

===About Baseline Scotland===
[[Image:Sepa_logo1.jpg|frameless|right|200px|]]
Baseline Scotland is a joint project between BGS and [https://www.sepa.org.uk/ SEPA ]which is providing new groundwater chemistry data for Scotland. This new data provides essential information to sustainably manage Scotland’s water environment, as required by Scottish, UK and European water legislation, (such as the [[Glossary of groundwater and groundwater-related terms#Water Framework Directive | Water Framework Directive)]]. Before Baseline Scotland very little reliable groundwater chemistry data existed, particularly for trace elements.

Systematic groundwater sampling surveys were carried out across all the major bedrock aquifers in Scotland between 2005 and 2011, as well as many superficial aquifers. Standardised sampling techniques were used to characterise the groundwater chemistry in detail and investigate how long since groundwater was recharged from rainfall; how groundwater has interacted with the aquifer rocks; and whether there is any groundwater pollution. The results from most parts of Scotland have already been reported in [[Baseline Scotland reports | detailed reports]]. Summary results for each major aquifer group in Scotland are presented in [[Scotland's aquifers and groundwater bodies | Scotland’s Aquifers and Groundwater Bodies]] (2015). Detailed results for the final areas, and a detailed overview of the baseline groundwater chemistry of Scotland, will be reported soon.

===The aims of Baseline Scotland are:===
* To characterise the natural background groundwater quality in the main aquifers of Scotland, by carrying out new detailed groundwater chemistry sampling.
*To provide a scientific foundation to Scottish, UK and European water quality policy and groundwater management and protection, with an emphasis on the protection and sustainable development of high quality groundwater.

===Outputs===
* Summarised groundwater chemistry data for major bedrock aquifers in Scotland.

===Spatial coverage of groundwater chemistry data: Scotland===
Before the Baseline Scotland project began there was little information on natural groundwater chemistry in Scotland. Existing data was mainly old, of variable quality, limited (often to a few major ions only), and skewed to areas of groundwater contamination, particularly related to mining, and to the more productive Scottish aquifers, in particular the Devonian aquifers of Fife, Strathmore and Morayshire, and the Permian aquifer in Dumfries. Since the start of the Baseline Scotland project, 268 new groundwater samples have been collected from aquifers across Scotland. A further 479 samples collected during other projects since 2001, using equally rigorous sampling techniques to the Baseline samples, have been incorporated into the Baseline dataset.

[[Image:AllBaselineSamples-Nov15.jpg|frameless|center|400px|]]

<center>'''Spatial coverage of Baseline Scotland groundwater chemistry data: for bedrock aquifers (blue circles) and Quaternary aquifers (green squares). Backdrop is 1:625 000 scale geological map.'''</center>

===Baseline sampling===
The Baseline sampling surveys collected new data on groundwater chemistry, stable isotopes and residence times. Rigorous well head measurements (of parameters including dissolved oxygen, redox potential, SEC and bicarbonate) were combined with collecting samples for analysis of major, minor and trace ions; stable isotopes (δH2, δ18O and δ13C); dissolved organic carbon; and where possible, CFC (chlorofluorocarbon), SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride), and other dissolved gases such as CH4 (methane).

* [[Baseline sampling and analysis methodology | Technical details of the Baseline sampling methodology]]

<center>
<div><ul>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:Baseline_photo3.jpg|frameless|left|285px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:Baseline_photo2.jpg|frameless|right|350px]]</li>
<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:Baseline_photo1.jpg|frameless|right|350px]]</li>
</ul></div>
</center>

<center>''(top left)'' '''Measuring wellhead chemistry. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>
<center>''(centre)'' '''Sampling groundwater. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>
<center>''(bottom)'' '''Sampling groundwater. BGS © UKRI.'''</center>

===Baseline Scotland data===
Twelve major bedrock aquifer units have been defined across Scotland, which have distinctly different controls on baseline groundwater chemistry – largely related to geological age and rock type. The baseline groundwater chemistry of each of these aquifer units is reported separately. Click on the data links below to view summaries of baseline groundwater chemistry data already reported for Scotland.
 
[[Image:BaselineBedrock.jpg|frameless|center|350px|]]
<center>'''Major bedrock aquifer units in Scotland, which show distinctly different baseline groundwater chemistry.'''</center>

===Baseline Scotland data summaries===
* [[Aberdeenshire | Aberdeenshire data]]
* [[Midland Valley | Midland Valley data]]
* [[Moray Firth | Moray Firth data]]
* [[Southern Scotland | Southern Scotland data]]
* [[Strathmore | Strathmore data]]
* [[Manganese in Scottish Groundwater | Manganese in Scottish Groundwater]]

A summary of the baseline groundwater chemistry in each major bedrock aquifer in Scotland is presented in [[Scotland's aquifers and groundwater bodies | Scotland’s Aquifers and Groundwater Bodies]].

===Contact===
Please contact [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/about-bgs/contact-us/ BGS Enquiries] for more information.
[[category:Groundwater and shale gas]]