Hydrogeological Processes Africa

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Beod: Created page with " Africa Groundwater Atlas >> Resource pages >> Key hydrogeological processes, with particular reference to Africa This page is still being developed. Please check back soon for more information. ==Key hydrogeological processes== These pages provide background on the hydrogeological processes that are an essential part of understanding groundwater resources and hydrogeology, and specific information releva..."

[[Africa Groundwater Atlas Home | Africa Groundwater Atlas]] >> [[Additional resources | Resource pages]] >> Key hydrogeological processes, with particular reference to Africa

This page is still being developed. Please check back soon for more information.

==Key hydrogeological processes==

These pages provide background on the hydrogeological processes that are an essential part of understanding groundwater resources and hydrogeology, and specific information relevant to Africa.

:- [[Aquifer properties | Aquifer properties]]

:- [[Recharge | Recharge]]

:- [[Groundwater quality in Africa | Groundwater quality and groundwater chemistry]]

Return to [[Africa Groundwater Atlas Home | Africa Groundwater Atlas]] >> [[Additional resources | Resource pages]]

[[Category:Additional resources]]
[[Category:Africa Groundwater Atlas]]

Africa Groundwater Atlas Home

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'''[[Atlas Eaux Souterraines Afrique | Lire l'Atlas des eaux souterraines d l'Afrique en français]]''' [[File: flag_of_france.png | 50px]]

==Welcome to the Africa Groundwater Atlas==

This Atlas provides a summary of the hydrogeology and groundwater resources of 51 African countries, and a gateway to further information. The aim of the Atlas is to improve the availability and accessibility of high quality information on groundwater in Africa, to support the safe and sustainable development and use of groundwater resources.

As well as information on individual countries, Atlas provides links to further information, including through the [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/africagroundwateratlas/index.cfm Africa Groundwater Literature Archive], and also provides supporting information on many groundwater-related issues that affect sustainable groundwater development, management and use.

The Atlas provides groundwater information and maps at a national scale, not local, site-specific groundwater information. For site-specific groundwater assessments, such as siting new water boreholes, more detailed information is needed.

==Hydrogeology and groundwater resources by country==

===[[Hydrogeology by country | Hydrogeology by country]]===

The [[Hydrogeology by country | '''Hydrogeology by country''']] section provides a profile of each of 51 countries in Africa, and a gateway to further information sources. Each country page provides a summary of the geology and hydrogeology of key aquifers, the status of groundwater resources, and groundwater management. For each country there is also [[Supporting environmental information | supporting environmental information]]: climate, major rivers, soils and land cover.

[[File:AGA_Overview.png | 400px | center ]]

===[[List of Authors | Contributing authors]]===

The country profiles were prepared by the British Geological Survey (BGS) in collaboration with hydrogeologists, geologists and other groundwater experts from across Africa and beyond. The authors are cited on the relevant country pages, and details of all the [[List of Authors | '''contributing authors''' ]] can be found here.

==[[Additional resources | Resource pages]]==

This section provides a series of pages with additional information on key issues related to hydrogeology, groundwater resources and management in Africa.

===[[Overview_of_Groundwater_in_Africa| An overview of groundwater in Africa]]===

A brief [[Overview_of_Groundwater_in_Africa| background to groundwater resources and hydrogeological environments in Africa]]

===[[Supporting environmental information | Supporting geological and environmental information]]===

For each country, the Atlas provides maps and graphs with information on environmental parameters closely related to groundwater: [[Geology | ''geology'']], [[Climate | ''climate'']], [[Surface water | ''major rivers'']], [[Soil | ''soils'']] and [[Land cover | ''land cover'']].

===[[Hydrogeological Processes Africa| Key hydrogeological processes]]===

An overview of key hydrogeological processes, with particular relevance to Africa: [[Aquifer properties | ''aquifer properties'']], [[Recharge | ''recharge'']], and [[Groundwater quality in Africa | ''groundwater quality'']].

===[[Hydrogeology Maps Of Africa | Groundwater and Hydrogeological Maps of Africa]]===

Information on [[Hydrogeology Maps Of Africa | ''maps of groundwater and hydrogeology of Africa'']], including the [[Africa Groundwater Atlas Hydrogeology Maps | ''Africa Groundwater Atlas '''Country Hydrogeology Maps''''']].

===[[Developing Groundwater Resources | Developing groundwater resources (groundwater development)]] ===

Resources relating to the sustainable development of groundwater resources using different [[Groundwater source types | ''groundwater source types'']], including [[Stages in groundwater exploration | ''stages and techniques for groundwater exploration and development'']], such as [[Siting Boreholes | ''siting boreholes'']], [[Borehole Drilling | ''borehole drilling'']], [[Manual drilling | ''manual drilling'']], [[Assessing Groundwater Source Yield | ''assessing source yield'']] and [[Assessing Water Quality | ''assessing groundwater quality'']].

===[[Groundwater Management | Groundwater management]]===

Organisations supporting groundwater management; information on [[Groundwater monitoring | ''groundwater monitoring'']], [[Groundwater use | ''groundwater use'']] and [[Groundwater Data | ''groundwater data'']] in Africa.

===[[Key Groundwater Issues | Key groundwater issues]]===

Information on key groundwater issues in Africa, including [[Urban groundwater in Africa | ''urban groundwater'']], [[Groundwater irrigation in Africa | ''groundwater and irrigation'']], [[Groundwater quality in Africa | ''groundwater quality'']] and [[Transboundary aquifers | ''transboundary aquifers'']].

===[[Case studies | Case studies]]===

These [[Case studies | case studies]] give practical examples of groundwater issues and how they have been addressed in countries across Africa.

===[[Groundwater Data | Groundwater Data]]===

===[[Groundwater Research in Africa | Groundwater Research in Africa]]===

===[[Groundwater Educational Resources | Training and Educational Resources]]===

Information and resources on online training courses and course material for water professionals, and educational resources to help explain groundwater issues and hydrogeology.

===[[Groundwater Organisations in Africa | Groundwater Organisations in Africa]]===

==[https://www.bgs.ac.uk/africagroundwateratlas/archive.cfm Africa Groundwater Literature Archive]==

The [https://www.bgs.ac.uk/africagroundwateratlas/archive.cfm '''Africa Groundwater Literature Archive''']
is is an online library of documents about groundwater in Africa - a searchable database holding bibliographic references for thousands of items of literature related to groundwater in Africa. The documents include published and unpublished reports, journal papers, maps, books and academic theses.

Search the Archive by:

:- '''location''' - search for all documents for a particular country; or for many of the documents, search for their detailed location on a map.
:- thematic '''keyword''' - for example, search for documents about ''aquifer characterisation'', ''groundwater quality'', or ''socio-economics''

The Archive gives full bibliographic references and, whereever possible, links to full-text documents.

[[Africa Groundwater Literature Archive description | '''Background information about the Africa Groundwater Literature Archive project''']].

[[File:Archivefront.PNG | 400px | center ]]

==Background to the Africa Groundwater Atlas==

===Further project information===

[[Africa_Groundwater_Atlas_description| '''Further information''']] on the Africa Groundwater Atlas project.

===Terms of use===

[[Africa Groundwater Atlas Terms of Use | '''Terms of use''']] for information provided in the Atlas.

===Contact us===

If you would like further information about the Africa Groundwater Atlas, or have groundwater information you would like to see added to the Atlas, please contact us at [mailto:AfricaGWAtlas@bgs.ac.uk AfricaGWAtlas@bgs.ac.uk].

==[[Wikipedia edit-a-thon | Wikipedia edit-a-thon]]==

At the 2019 IAH Congress we ran a [[Wikipedia edit-a-thon | Wikipedia edit-a-thon]] to transfer content from the Africa Groundwater Atlas into Wikipedia, to create the first Groundwater in Africa Wikipedia pages - making hydrogeology information for Africa even more visible and accessible to a wider audience.


[[Category:Africa Groundwater Atlas]]

Overview of Groundwater in Africa

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Beod:

[[Africa Groundwater Atlas Home | Africa Groundwater Atlas]] >> [[Additional resources | Resource pages ]] >> Overview of groundwater resources and hydrogeological environments in Africa

Please cite page as: Africa Groundwater Atlas. 2019. Overview of Groundwater in Africa. British Geological Survey. Accessed [date you accessed the information]. ''Weblink''.

==Groundwater in Africa==

Groundwater has many advantages as a source of safe, sustainable water in Africa. It is particularly suited to regions with large rural populations, where demand for water is dispersed across large areas. The main advantages and limitations of groundwater as a water resource are summarised below.

====Advantages of groundwater as a water resource in Africa====

*Groundwater can be found in most environments, at least enough to provide small domestic supplies. It is therefore usually available close to the point of demand.
*Groundwater usually has excellent natural water quality and is usually suitable for potable use with no prior treatment.
*Groundwater is naturally more protected from contamination than surface water/
*Groundwater provides large volumes of natural water storage. Seasonal variations in amount or quality aren't usually significant, so that groundwater is more drought resistant than surface waters.
*Groundwater lends itself well to principles of community management. It can be developed incrementally, often at relatively low cost/initial capital investment.

====Limitations of groundwater as a water resource in Africa====

*In some hydrogeological environments, considerable investment is needed to locate and develop suitable sites for groundwater abstraction - dug wells, drilled boreholes or improved springs.
*In some hydrogeological environments, there can be natural groundwater quality problems - such as iron, fluoride or arsenic.
*As human development increases, the threat of groundwater pollution increases, and there is a greater need for awareness of, and action on, groundwater and aquifer protection.
*Groundwater can be vulnerable to over-abstraction, particularly in low productivity aquifers and/or as water demand and the ability to abstract large volumes of water both grow. Long term changes in rainfall patterns can also impact on groundwater recharge and renewal.
*As overall water supply coverage increases, more hydrogeologically difficult areas can remain unserved, and they become more costly to develop.

===Hydrogeological environments in Africa===

How and where groundwater occurs depends primarily on '''geology''', '''geomorphology/weathering''', and '''rainfall''' (both current and historic). The interaction between these three factors gives rise to complex hydrogeological environments, with countless variations in the quantity, quality, ease of access to and renewability of groundwater resources. Because the hydrogeology - how groundwater exists and behaves - is different in each environment, different methods are needed to find, abstract and manage groundwater. Successfully developing groundwater resources depends on a good understanding of the hydrogeological environment.

Africa is hugely diverse in its geology, climate and hydrology. As a result, the hydrogeology of Africa is also hugely variable. But at a continental scale, there are only four main types of '''hydrogeological environment''' (or '''aquifer type''') - shown in the map, below:

*'''basement''' aquifers;
*'''volcanic''' aquifers;
*'''consolidated sedimentary''' aquifers (which can be dominated by either fracture and/or intergranular flow); and
*'''unconsolidated sedimentary''' aquifers.

A detailed description of these environments is in [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/501047/ MacDonald and Davies (2001)]; and a summary is below.

[[File:Africa_Hgcl_Envs.png|thumb| 400px|center| The main hydrogeological environments in Africa]]

====Basement aquifers====

Crystalline basement rocks of Precambrian age underlie much of Africa. They form low productivity aquifers that provide small rural water supplies for tens, if not hundreds, of millions of people. Groundwater occurs where the rocks have been significantly weathered and/or in fracture zones, most of which are usually shallower than a few tens of metres depth. Borehole and well yields are generally low, but usually sufficient for rural demand.

<center>

<div><ul>

<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:weathered basement.png| 300 px| thumb |left | Groundwater occurrence in a weathered basement aquifer]] </li>

</ul></div>

</center>

====Volcanic aquifers====

Volcanic rocks underlie a small but significant proportion of Africa's land area, and are an important water source for tens of millions of people, many of whom live in the drought stricken areas of the Horn of Africa. Groundwater in volcanic aquifers is found within palaeosoils and fractures between lava flows. Yields can be high, and springs are important sources in highland areas.

<center>

<div><ul>

<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:volcanic_aquifers.png| 300 px| thumb| right| Groundwater occurrence in a volcanic rock aquifer]] </li>

</ul></div>

</center>

====Consolidated sedimentary aquifers====

Consolidated sedimentary rocks underlie around one third of Africa's land area, and can form thick, highly productive aquifers. The most significant aquifers are sandstones and limestones, which can be exploited for large urban as well as rural supplies. Mudstones however, which account for about 65% of all sedimentary rocks in Africa, contain little groundwater, and careful study is required to develop groundwater supplies from mudstones.

<center>

<div><ul>

<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:sedimentary_aquifers.png| 300 px| thumb| left | Groundwater occurrence in a consolidated sedimentary aquifer]] </li>

</ul></div>

</center>

====Unconsolidated sedimentary aquifers====

Unconsolidated sediments directly underlie much of Africa, and are extremely important for both rural and urban water supplies. Unconsolidated sands and gravels occur in most river valleys throughout Africa, and in many coastal areas. These deposits are often highly permeable and can store large volumes of groundwater at shallow depths, which is easy to exploit by traditional shallow wells and boreholes.

<center>

<div><ul>

<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File:riverside_alluvium.png| 300 px| thumb| right| Groundwater occurence in unconsolidated valley alluvium]] </li>

</ul></div>

</center>

===More Information===

More information on geology and aquifer characteristics across Africa can be found in these [[Additional resources | resource pages]]: [[Geology | geology]]; [[Hydrogeology Map | hydrogeology map]]; and [[Aquifer properties| aquifer properties]]. More detailed information on aquifers in each country can be found in the [[Hydrogeology by country | country pages]].

Maps summarising the hydrogeology of Africa:
[https://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/groundwater/international/africanGroundwater/maps.html Quantitative Groundwater Maps for Africa]

MacDonald, A.M. & Davies, J. 2000. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/501047/ A brief review of groundwater for rural water supply in sub-Saharan Africa]. British Geological Survey Report WC/00/033.

MacDonald, A.M., Bonsor, H.C., Ó Dochartaigh, B.É. & Taylor, R.G. 2012. [https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/7/2/024009;jsessionid=18D8D7F69C3ACBEED0D7494F46850BD6.c1 Quantitative maps of groundwater resources in Africa]. Environmental Research Letters 7(2).

MacDonald, A.M. & Calow, R.C. 2009. [https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/8460/ Developing groundwater for secure water supplies in Africa]. Desalination 248, 546-556. doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2008.05.100

[[Africa Groundwater Atlas Home | Africa Groundwater Atlas]] >> [[Additional resources | Resource pages ]] >> Overview of Groundwater in Africa

[[Category:Additional resources]]
[[Category:Africa Groundwater Atlas]]

Groundwater Data

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Beod:

[[Africa Groundwater Atlas Home | Africa Groundwater Atlas]] >> [[Additional resources | Resource pages]] >> Groundwater Data

This page provides an overview of groundwater data, with a particular focus on Africa; and links to further information and to available groundwater data sources.

This page is still being developed. Please check back soon for more information.

Please cite page as: Africa Groundwater Atlas. 2023. Groundwater Data. British Geological Survey. Accessed [date you accessed the information]. ''Weblink''.

See also the [[Groundwater monitoring | '''Groundwater Monitoring''']] page.

You may also be interested in an [[Africa National Groundwater Databases | '''inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa''']], and in [[Long term groundwater datasets | '''long term groundwater datasets in Africa''']].

==What is Groundwater Data?==

Groundwater data usually refers to '''measured physical or chemical information on groundwater''', which is collected at points where groundwater is accessible from the surface - usually boreholes, wells or springs.

Much useful groundwater data can be collected during drilling and testing of new boreholes. Other data must be collected from ongoing groundwater monitoring (see the [[Groundwater monitoring | '''groundwater monitoring''']] page for more information on this).

Examples of useful and important groundwater data that can be collected during '''borehole drilling and testing''':

* borehole '''drilling logs''' with geological and hydrogeological information, such as aquifer lithology, water strikes and borehole construction information.
* '''test pumping data''': direct and derived data from hydrogeological tests, usually on boreholes, including pumping rates and associated drawdowns; measured aquifer properties; and estimated sustainable '''yields'''.
* one-off '''groundwater levels'''.
* one-off '''groundwater chemistry and microbiology'''.

Examples of useful and important groundwater data that must be collected by ongoing '''monitoring''' (over time):

* '''groundwater levels''', usually measured in boreholes or wells. These may be rest or static water levels (unaffected by groundwater pumping) or pumped water levels.
* '''groundwater chemistry and microbiology'''. This can include a wide range of parameters from the simple to complex: pH, alkalinity or water conductivity (SEC); inorganic chemistry including major ions such as calcium, magnesium and sodium; minor ions such as iron and manganese; or trace elements such as arsenic or cadmium; organic chemistry parameters such as nutrients and carbon or oil pollutants; microbiological parameters, often related to pathogens such as E-coli, giardia, cryptospiridium or viruses; environmental tracers including stable isotopes (such as deuterium and oxygen-18) and radioactive isotopes (such as tritium); and dissolved gases such as CFCs, methane and carbon dioxide.

It is a challenge to collect, check, store and manage groundwater data so that it can be used effectively for groundwater development and management. Much of the information on this page relates to how and where groundwater data are stored and managed - e.g. groundwater databases - from where the data can be accessed and used. For example, an [[#Inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa | '''inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa''']].

Issues relating to collecting and checking (quality assurance or QA) groundwater data are covered here in less detail, but there are some links to further resources on these topics.

===Who collects groundwater data?===

Strategic groundwater data storage and management, at a national or sub-national scale, is usually the responsibility of government institutions. Data collection may be done by government agencies themselves - this is often the case for ongoing groundwater monitoring - or there may be a requirement for individuals or organisations involved in relevant activities, in particular borehole drilling, to report data to the relevant government agency.

Groundwater data is also sometimes collected by individual research projects, for specific purposes. This data is usually limited spatially to the project area, and in time to the length of the project. It is usually not available beyond the relevant project, although in some cases, data may be shared with national government bodies and/or NGOs or other organisations involved in groundwater development and management, and/or on project websites.

Some groundwater data are collected and stored by private organisations or NGOs, often as part of wider groundwater or water supply and management data. For example, water point mapping by NGOs working on water supply ([[#Water Point Data | Water Point Data]]), which can include some groundwater data, or data collected by mining companies or other private companies as part of their operations ([[#Groundwater Data Sources: Project-based and Private Sector | Groundwater Data Sources: Project-based and Private Sector]]).

===How is groundwater data stored?===

Often, groundwater data collected during drilling and testing is stored separately from groundwater monitoring data.

Most countries have a '''national borehole inventory''' that is intended to store geological and groundwater data from the time of borehole drilling, reported by drillers and/or NGOs or other organisations active in developing water supply boreholes. These inventories can include borehole depths, drilling logs with geological information (such as lithological descriptions of the geological units drilled through), borehole construction information (such as the presence and length of borehole screens or plain casing, and whether or not the borehole has been sealed to prevent unwanted surface water inflows), and a one-off borehole water level measured during borehole drilling or immediately after construction. They may also include geophysical data from borehole siting, and test pumping data from borehole testing.

Many countries also have one or more '''national groundwater (monitoring) databases''' intended to store ongoing (time series) data from strategic '''monitoring networks''' for '''groundwater level''' or '''groundwater quality'''. Such monitoring networks are not always fully operational, or representative of groundwater across a whole country; and monitoring data are not always easily available.

The Atlas has compiled a [[#Inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa | '''catalogue of national groundwater databases in Africa''']], which provides brief details of known national borehole inventories and monitoring databases for each country in Africa. There is also a separate list below of [[#Online groundwater databases for countries in Africa | '''countries with online groundwater databases''']].

==Water Point Data==

Groundwater data is different from water point data. In recent years, the WASH sector has seen huge improvements in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_point_mapping '''water point mapping'''] and, therefore, in the availability of water point data in Africa, and globally. Many new procedures, databases and digital apps have been developed - designed to allow more efficient collection, storage and availability of water point data, at project, organisation and national level, including the development of online databases.

However, although most water points in Africa are groundwater sources, water point databases usually contain little groundwater data. Usually, therefore, they do not provide much or any information about the groundwater resource on which the water points rely.

Some examples of data portals or digital technologies for water point data collection and management are:

* [https://portal.mwater.co/#/ '''MWater''']
* the Water Point Data Exchange ([https://www.waterpointdata.org/ '''WPDx'''])
* [https://akvo.org/products/akvoflow/#overview '''Akvo Flow''']
* [https://www.waterpointmapper.org/ '''Water Point Mapper''']
* the Sierra Leone national [https://washdata-sl.org/ '''WASH Data Portal''']

==An overview of groundwater data in Africa==

The sections below provide information on key sources of groundwater data in Africa: at a [[#Groundwater Data Sources: Africa-wide or Global | continental scale]] (including global datasets that include Africa); a [[#Groundwater Data Sources: Regional within Africa | regional scale]]; a [[#Groundwater Data Sources: Country-specific / National | national scale]], including an [[#Inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa | inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa]]; and at a [[#Groundwater Data Sources: Project-based and Private Sector | project scale or relating to private sector data]]. These data sources include groundwater source (borehole, well and spring) data and/or groundwater monitoring data.

Groundwater monitoring is also discussed specifically on the [[Groundwater monitoring | '''Groundwater monitoring''']] page.

The [[Long term groundwater datasets | '''long term groundwater datasets in Africa''']] page describes available long term (multi-decadal) groundwater monitoring data for sites in Africa.

===Groundwater Data Sources: Africa-wide or Global===

====[[Long term groundwater datasets | Chronicles Consortium]]====

The [https://www.un-igrac.org/special-project/chronicles-consortium Chronicles Consortium] initiative is collating long term - multi-decadal - records of groundwater levels from around Africa. There is a dedicated Atlas page on
[[Long term groundwater datasets | '''long term groundwater datasets in Africa''']], which provides more information on the Chronicles Consortium project and data.

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====IGRAC [https://www.un-igrac.org/global-groundwater-information-system-ggis Global Groundwater Information System]====

[https://www.un-igrac.org/ IGRAC] hosts the [https://www.un-igrac.org/global-groundwater-information-system-ggis '''Global Groundwater Information System'''] (GGIS) - an interactive, web-based portal to groundwater-related information. This includes some groundwater level monitoring data collated from a number of countries, including some in Africa, in the [https://ggmn.un-igrac.org/ '''Global Groundwater Monitoring Network'''] (GGMN).

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====UNHCR [https://wash.unhcr.org/wash-gis-portal/ Refugee Site Borehole Data]====

The [https://www.unhcr.org/uk/ UNHCR] have an online [https://wash.unhcr.org/wash-gis-portal/ WASH '''GIS portal'''], which includes groundwater data from water boreholes at UNHCR refugee sites, including borehole locations, depths, casing diameters, rest (static) water levels and estimated safe yields.

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====EAWAG [https://www.gapmaps.info/ '''Groundwater Assessment Platform'''] - groundwater quality data====

[https://www.eawag.ch/en/ '''EAWAG'''] (the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology) developed the [https://www.gapmaps.info/ '''Groundwater Assessment Platform'''], with information on geogenic (naturally occurring in groundwater) contaminants. This database includes some measured data on groundwater arsenic and fluoride concentrations, including in Africa.
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===Groundwater Data Sources: Regional within Africa===

====SADC====

An extensive report describes [https://sadc-gmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/State-of-GW-data-in-SADC_20190131.pdf the State of Groundwater Data Collection and Data Management in SADC Member States] (Sterckx et al. 2019).

The [https://sadc-gip.org/ '''SADC Groundwater Information Portal'''] (SADC-GIP) is an online platform for sharing groundwater-related data and information in the SADC region. It includes many hydrogeological maps and databases.

===Groundwater Data Sources: Country-specific / National===

Most countries in Africa have national groundwater data holdings, such as a water borehole inventory, a groundwater level database or a groundwater quality database.

====Inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa====

The Atlas has created an inventory of [[Africa National Groundwater Databases | '''Africa National Groundwater Databases''']], which provides brief details of known national groundwater databases in Africa.

Some of these databases are available online, and they are listed below.

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====Online groundwater databases for countries in Africa====

Few countries (in Africa or elsewhere around the world) currently make such databases widely available, either in person or online, so that even where groundwater data exists at a national level, it is often not easily visible or accessible. The [[Africa National Groundwater Databases | '''Africa national groundwater databases inventory''']] includes information on whether, and how, data from national groundwater databases are accessible. These include a growing number of countries in Africa for which some groundwater data are available online, including the following examples:

*; Guinea Bissau

An online [https://portal.mwater.co/#/dashboards/9c20165c8763489b85baf898bda1dca3?share=2bb0050028d540298277e50208717545 '''MWater Portal'''] allows displays data from a database storing information on nearly 1000 water boreholes, with some groundwater data including borehole depth, static water level and selected water chemistry parameters.

*; Liberia

The online [https://wash-liberia.org/ '''WASH Liberia'''] portal provides access to data from two water point surveys done in 2011 and 2017, with limited groundwater information such as water point depth, whether water is available year-round, how long it is typically dry for, if seasonally dry; and qualitative water quality information.

*; Madagascar

A database developed for the SADC Hydrogeological Mapping project in 2010 is available to view in the [https://sadc-gip.org/layers/geonode:gip_BHdata_madagascar '''SADC GMI Groundwater Information Portal'''], with some groundwater data, including borehole depth, geology, aquifer type, water level, yield, and selected groundwater chemistry parameters.

*; Malawi

A database developed for the SADC Hydrogeological Mapping project in 2010 is available to view in the [https://sadc-gip.org/layers/geonode_data:geonode:BHdatabase_Malawi '''SADC GMI Groundwater Information Portal'''], with some groundwater data, including borehole depth, static water level, yield and how yield was measured, and some water chemistry parameters.

*; Namibia

The [https://www.na-mis.com/ '''Namibian Monitoring Information System (NA-MIS)'''] is an online interactive map viewer showing the locations of groundwater monitoring boreholes across Nambia and summary information on groundwater quality from monitoring boreholes. It also shows groundwater maps of Nambia: of aquifer/groundwater potential; groundwater abstraction; groundwater vulnerability; and recharge.
NA-MIS is available online via the [https://sadc-gmi.org/ SADC Groundwater Management Institute].

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*; Rwanda

The [https://waterportal.rwb.rw/ '''Rwanda Water Portal'''] allows access to groundwater level and conductivity monitoring data from a monitoring network of 24 boreholes (in 2021). Some of the groundwater level data is available to view in real time from telemetered boreholes.

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*; South Africa

The South Africa Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) has an online [https://www.dwa.gov.za/Groundwater/NGA.aspx '''National Groundwater Archive'''], which users can register for to explore groundwater related data.

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*; South Sudan

Data from a water point database collected in 2012 is available to view and download online at [https://data.humdata.org/dataset/south-sudan-water-sanitation-hygiene '''HDX - South Sudan Waterpoints'''], including groundwater data such as water point type, depth, static water level, and estimated yield.

*; Zimbabwe

Data from a database storing information on thousands of boreholes is available to view online in the [https://sadc-gip.org/layers/geonode_data:geonode:BHdatabase_Zimbabwe '''SADC-GIP Groundwater Information Portal'''], including groundwater data such as borehole depth, geology, aquifer type & potential, static water level, yield & how yield was measured, and selected water quality parameters.

===Groundwater Data Sources: Project-based and Private Sector===

Many projects and private industries carry out some form of groundwater data collection and/or monitoring. These data are often detailed, but usually focus on small areas and sometimes for short time scales (e.g. weeks to months, or in some cases a few years). These data holdings are rarely integrated with national, government-held databases. It can be difficult for people outside the project or private company to identify what data holdings exist, and if identified, to access the data.

An example of private sector groundwater data is groundwater level monitoring data for a shallow aquifer at a large mine in Kwale country, Kenya, which is collected by the mine operator Base Titanium. This data was shared by the mine operator with the [https://upgro.org/ UPGro] research project [https://upgro.org/consortium/gro-for-good/ Gro for Good], illustrated by a poster by [https://www.water.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/IAH-Poster-Presentation.pdf Mutua et al (2014)].

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| [[File:MutuaetalPosterClip.PNG | thumb|500px | Poster by [https://www.water.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/IAH-Poster-Presentation.pdf Mutua et al (2014)] ]]
|}

An example of project-based groundwater level monitoring comes from a WaterAid project in Burkina Faso, where WaterAid initiated community-based water resource monitoring. More information is in this [[Case Study Community Monitoring Burkina Faso | '''case study on community monitoring in Burkina Faso''']].

{|
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| [[File:DippingHandDugWellBF.jpg | thumb|300px | Dipping the water level in a hand dug well. Image credit: Djibril Barry / WaterAid (2016) ]]
|}

==References==

Adelana SMA. 2009. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265687126_Monitoring_groundwater_use_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa_Issues_and_Challenges Monitoring groundwater resources in Sub-Saharan Africa: issues and challenges]. Groundwater and Climate in Africa: Proceedings of the Kampala Conference, June 2008, IAHS Publ. 334.

IGRAC. 2020. [https://www.un-igrac.org/resource/national-groundwater-monitoring-programmes-global-overview-quantitative-groundwater Groundwater monitoring programmes: A global overview of quantitative groundwater monitoring networks]

Sterckx A, Nijsten G-J, Gomo M, Lukas E and Kukurić N. 2019. [https://sadc-gmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/State-of-GW-data-in-SADC_20190131.pdf State of Groundwater Data Collection and Data Management in SADC Member States: Final report].

Return to [[Africa Groundwater Atlas Home | Africa Groundwater Atlas]] >> [[Additional resources | Resource pages]]

[[Category:Groundwater data]]
[[Category:Additional resources]]
[[Category:Africa Groundwater Atlas]]

File:Chroniclesposter.JPG

2023-01-30T10:23:51Z

Beod:

Long term groundwater datasets

2023-01-30T10:23:35Z

Beod:

[[Africa Groundwater Atlas Home | Africa Groundwater Atlas]] >> [[Additional resources | Resource pages]] >> Long term groundwater datasets

==The Chronicles Consortium==

The [https://www.un-igrac.org/special-project/chronicles-consortium Chronicles Consortium] is an international consortium of scientists from across Africa and beyond, who are collating and analysing multidecadal records of groundwater levels. These datasets represent long-term aquifer dynamics, and are vital in order to assess the impacts of groundwater use, climate variability and change, and land use change on groundwater storage across Africa. The Consortium was established at the 41st Congress of the IAH (International Association of Hydrogeologists) in Marrakech, Morocco on 14 September 2014 and led by Tamiru Abiye (Wits University, South Africa), Guillaume Favreau (IRD, France), and Richard Taylor (University College London, UK).

The project '''Collation and analysis of multidecadal groundwater levels – observations in Africa''' was a joint initiative of the African Groundwater Network (AGW-Net), IAH Commission on Groundwater and Climate Change, and the UNESCO-IHP GRAPHIC programme, and was supported by the [https://upgro.org/ '''UPGro'''] (Unlocking the Potential of Groundwater for the Poor) programme of the UK government (DFID, NERC, ESRC) and the LMI-PICASSEAU programme of the French government (IRD). The Consortium worked with national experts in nine countries in sub-Saharan Africa, to uncover and assemble multi-decadal records of groundwater levels. The collated data were subject to rigorous analysis and were reported on in Cuthbert et al. (2019).

The collated [https://www.un-igrac.org/chronicles-long-term-groundwater-level-anomalies-across-sub-saharan-africa '''Chronicles long term groundwater data''' ] can be downloaded from [https://www.un-igrac.org/ IGRAC].

More information can be seen at the [https://www.un-igrac.org/special-project/chronicles-consortium '''Chronicles Consortium'''] site.

If you have or know of any more long term groundwater data in Africa, please contact the Consortium on chronicles@un-igrac.org

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==References==

Cuthbert MO, Taylor RG et al. 2019. [https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1441-7 Observed controls on resilience of groundwater to climate variability in sub-Saharan Africa]. Nature 572, 230–234.

Return to [[Africa Groundwater Atlas Home | Africa Groundwater Atlas]] >> [[Additional resources | Resource pages]]

[[Category:Additional resources]]
[[Category:Africa Groundwater Atlas]]

Long term groundwater datasets

2023-01-30T10:21:04Z

Beod: /* The Chronicles Consortium */

[[Africa Groundwater Atlas Home | Africa Groundwater Atlas]] >> [[Additional resources | Resource pages]] >> Long term groundwater datasets

==The Chronicles Consortium==

The [https://www.un-igrac.org/special-project/chronicles-consortium Chronicles Consortium] is an international consortium of scientists from across Africa and beyond, who are collating and analysing multidecadal records of groundwater levels. These datasets represent long-term aquifer dynamics, and are vital in order to assess the impacts of groundwater use, climate variability and change, and land use change on groundwater storage across Africa.

The project '''Collation and analysis of multidecadal groundwater levels – observations in Africa''' was a joint initiative of the African Groundwater Network (AGW-Net), IAH Commission on Groundwater and Climate Change, and the UNESCO-IHP GRAPHIC programme, and was supported by the [https://upgro.org/ '''UPGro'''] (Unlocking the Potential of Groundwater for the Poor) programme of the UK government (DFID, NERC, ESRC) and the LMI-PICASSEAU programme of the French government (IRD).

The Consortium was established at the 41st Congress of the IAH (International Association of Hydrogeologists) in Marrakech, Morocco on 14 September 2014 and led by Tamiru Abiye (Wits University, South Africa), Guillaume Favreau (IRD, France), and Richard Taylor (University College London, UK).

The Consortium worked with national experts in nine countries in sub-Saharan Africa, to uncover and assemble multi-decadal records of groundwater levels. The collated data were subject to rigorous analysis and were reported on in Cuthbert et al. (2019).

The collated [https://www.un-igrac.org/chronicles-long-term-groundwater-level-anomalies-across-sub-saharan-africa '''Chronicles long term groundwater data''' ] can be downloaded from [https://www.un-igrac.org/ IGRAC].

More information can be found at the [https://www.un-igrac.org/special-project/chronicles-consortium Chronicles Consortium] site.

If you have or know of any more long term groundwater data in Africa, please contact the Consortium on chronicles@un-igrac.org

==References==

Cuthbert MO, Taylor RG et al. 2019. [https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1441-7 Observed controls on resilience of groundwater to climate variability in sub-Saharan Africa]. Nature 572, 230–234.

Return to [[Africa Groundwater Atlas Home | Africa Groundwater Atlas]] >> [[Additional resources | Resource pages]]

[[Category:Additional resources]]
[[Category:Africa Groundwater Atlas]]

Groundwater Data

2023-01-30T10:12:30Z

Beod:

[[Africa Groundwater Atlas Home | Africa Groundwater Atlas]] >> [[Additional resources | Resource pages]] >> Groundwater Data

This page provides an overview of groundwater data, with a particular focus on Africa; and links to further information and to available groundwater data sources.

This page is still being developed. Please check back soon for more information.

Please cite page as: Africa Groundwater Atlas. 2023. Groundwater Data. British Geological Survey. Accessed [date you accessed the information]. ''Weblink''.

See also the [[Groundwater monitoring | '''Groundwater Monitoring''']] page.

You may also be interested in an [[Africa National Groundwater Databases | '''inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa''']], and in [[Long term groundwater datasets | '''long term groundwater datasets in Africa''']].

==What is Groundwater Data?==

Groundwater data usually refers to '''measured physical or chemical information on groundwater''', which is collected at points where groundwater is accessible from the surface - usually boreholes, wells or springs.

Much useful groundwater data can be collected during drilling and testing of new boreholes. Other data must be collected from ongoing groundwater monitoring (see the [[Groundwater monitoring | '''groundwater monitoring''']] page for more information on this).

Examples of useful and important groundwater data that can be collected during '''borehole drilling and testing''':

* borehole '''drilling logs''' with geological and hydrogeological information, such as aquifer lithology, water strikes and borehole construction information.
* '''test pumping data''': direct and derived data from hydrogeological tests, usually on boreholes, including pumping rates and associated drawdowns; measured aquifer properties; and estimated sustainable '''yields'''.
* one-off '''groundwater levels'''.
* one-off '''groundwater chemistry and microbiology'''.

Examples of useful and important groundwater data that must be collected by ongoing '''monitoring''' (over time):

* '''groundwater levels''', usually measured in boreholes or wells. These may be rest or static water levels (unaffected by groundwater pumping) or pumped water levels.
* '''groundwater chemistry and microbiology'''. This can include a wide range of parameters from the simple to complex: pH, alkalinity or water conductivity (SEC); inorganic chemistry including major ions such as calcium, magnesium and sodium; minor ions such as iron and manganese; or trace elements such as arsenic or cadmium; organic chemistry parameters such as nutrients and carbon or oil pollutants; microbiological parameters, often related to pathogens such as E-coli, giardia, cryptospiridium or viruses; environmental tracers including stable isotopes (such as deuterium and oxygen-18) and radioactive isotopes (such as tritium); and dissolved gases such as CFCs, methane and carbon dioxide.

It is a challenge to collect, check, store and manage groundwater data so that it can be used effectively for groundwater development and management. Much of the information on this page relates to how and where groundwater data are stored and managed - e.g. groundwater databases - from where the data can be accessed and used. For example, an [[#Inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa | '''inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa''']].

Issues relating to collecting and checking (quality assurance or QA) groundwater data are covered here in less detail, but there are some links to further resources on these topics.

===Who collects groundwater data?===

Strategic groundwater data storage and management, at a national or sub-national scale, is usually the responsibility of government institutions. Data collection may be done by government agencies themselves - this is often the case for ongoing groundwater monitoring - or there may be a requirement for individuals or organisations involved in relevant activities, in particular borehole drilling, to report data to the relevant government agency.

Groundwater data is also sometimes collected by individual research projects, for specific purposes. This data is usually limited spatially to the project area, and in time to the length of the project. It is usually not available beyond the relevant project, although in some cases, data may be shared with national government bodies and/or NGOs or other organisations involved in groundwater development and management, and/or on project websites.

Some groundwater data are collected and stored by private organisations or NGOs, often as part of wider groundwater or water supply and management data. For example, water point mapping by NGOs working on water supply ([[#Water Point Data | Water Point Data]]), which can include some groundwater data, or data collected by mining companies or other private companies as part of their operations ([[#Groundwater Data Sources: Project-based and Private Sector | Groundwater Data Sources: Project-based and Private Sector]]).

===How is groundwater data stored?===

Often, groundwater data collected during drilling and testing is stored separately from groundwater monitoring data.

Most countries have a '''national borehole inventory''' that is intended to store geological and groundwater data from the time of borehole drilling, reported by drillers and/or NGOs or other organisations active in developing water supply boreholes. These inventories can include borehole depths, drilling logs with geological information (such as lithological descriptions of the geological units drilled through), borehole construction information (such as the presence and length of borehole screens or plain casing, and whether or not the borehole has been sealed to prevent unwanted surface water inflows), and a one-off borehole water level measured during borehole drilling or immediately after construction. They may also include geophysical data from borehole siting, and test pumping data from borehole testing.

Many countries also have one or more '''national groundwater (monitoring) databases''' intended to store ongoing (time series) data from strategic '''monitoring networks''' for '''groundwater level''' or '''groundwater quality'''. Such monitoring networks are not always fully operational, or representative of groundwater across a whole country; and monitoring data are not always easily available.

The Atlas has compiled a [[#Inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa | '''catalogue of national groundwater databases in Africa''']], which provides brief details of known national borehole inventories and monitoring databases for each country in Africa. There is also a separate list below of [[#Online groundwater databases for countries in Africa | '''countries with online groundwater databases''']].

==Water Point Data==

Groundwater data is different from water point data. In recent years, the WASH sector has seen huge improvements in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_point_mapping '''water point mapping'''] and, therefore, in the availability of water point data in Africa, and globally. Many new procedures, databases and digital apps have been developed - designed to allow more efficient collection, storage and availability of water point data, at project, organisation and national level, including the development of online databases.

However, although most water points in Africa are groundwater sources, water point databases usually contain little groundwater data. Usually, therefore, they do not provide much or any information about the groundwater resource on which the water points rely.

Some examples of data portals or digital technologies for water point data collection and management are:

* [https://portal.mwater.co/#/ '''MWater''']
* the Water Point Data Exchange ([https://www.waterpointdata.org/ '''WPDx'''])
* [https://akvo.org/products/akvoflow/#overview '''Akvo Flow''']
* [https://www.waterpointmapper.org/ '''Water Point Mapper''']
* the Sierra Leone national [https://washdata-sl.org/ '''WASH Data Portal''']

==An overview of groundwater data in Africa==

The sections below provide information on key sources of groundwater data in Africa: at a [[#Groundwater Data Sources: Africa-wide or Global | continental scale]] (including global datasets that include Africa); a [[#Groundwater Data Sources: Regional within Africa | regional scale]]; a [[#Groundwater Data Sources: Country-specific / National | national scale]], including an [[#Inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa | inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa]]; and at a [[#Groundwater Data Sources: Project-based and Private Sector | project scale or relating to private sector data]]. These data sources include groundwater source (borehole, well and spring) data and/or groundwater monitoring data.

Groundwater monitoring is also discussed specifically on the [[Groundwater monitoring | '''Groundwater monitoring''']] page.

The [[Long term groundwater datasets | '''long term groundwater datasets in Africa''']] page describes available long term (multi-decadal) groundwater monitoring data for sites in Africa.

==Groundwater Data Sources: Africa-wide or Global==

===[[Long term groundwater datasets | Chronicles Consortium]]===

The [https://www.un-igrac.org/special-project/chronicles-consortium Chronicles Consortium] initiative is collating long term - multi-decadal - records of groundwater levels from around Africa. There is a dedicated Atlas page on
[[Long term groundwater datasets | '''long term groundwater datasets in Africa''']], which provides more information on the Chronicles Consortium project and data.

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===IGRAC [https://www.un-igrac.org/global-groundwater-information-system-ggis Global Groundwater Information System]===

[https://www.un-igrac.org/ IGRAC] hosts the [https://www.un-igrac.org/global-groundwater-information-system-ggis '''Global Groundwater Information System'''] (GGIS) - an interactive, web-based portal to groundwater-related information. This includes some groundwater level monitoring data collated from a number of countries, including some in Africa, in the [https://ggmn.un-igrac.org/ '''Global Groundwater Monitoring Network'''] (GGMN).

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===UNHCR [https://wash.unhcr.org/wash-gis-portal/ Refugee Site Borehole Data]===

The [https://www.unhcr.org/uk/ UNHCR] have an online [https://wash.unhcr.org/wash-gis-portal/ WASH '''GIS portal'''], which includes groundwater data from water boreholes at UNHCR refugee sites, including borehole locations, depths, casing diameters, rest (static) water levels and estimated safe yields.

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===EAWAG [https://www.gapmaps.info/ '''Groundwater Assessment Platform'''] - groundwater quality data===

[https://www.eawag.ch/en/ '''EAWAG'''] (the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology) developed the [https://www.gapmaps.info/ '''Groundwater Assessment Platform'''], with information on geogenic (naturally occurring in groundwater) contaminants. This database includes some measured data on groundwater arsenic and fluoride concentrations, including in Africa.
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==Groundwater Data Sources: Regional within Africa==

===SADC===

An extensive report describes [https://sadc-gmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/State-of-GW-data-in-SADC_20190131.pdf the State of Groundwater Data Collection and Data Management in SADC Member States] (Sterckx et al. 2019).

The [https://sadc-gip.org/ '''SADC Groundwater Information Portal'''] (SADC-GIP) is an online platform for sharing groundwater-related data and information in the SADC region. It includes many hydrogeological maps and databases.

==Groundwater Data Sources: Country-specific / National==

Most countries in Africa have national groundwater data holdings, such as a water borehole inventory, a groundwater level database or a groundwater quality database.

===Inventory of national groundwater databases in Africa===

The Atlas has created an inventory of [[Africa National Groundwater Databases | '''Africa National Groundwater Databases''']], which provides brief details of known national groundwater databases in Africa.

Some of these databases are available online, and they are listed below.

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===Online groundwater databases for countries in Africa===

Few countries (in Africa or elsewhere around the world) currently make such databases widely available, either in person or online, so that even where groundwater data exists at a national level, it is often not easily visible or accessible. The [[Africa National Groundwater Databases | '''Africa national groundwater databases inventory''']] includes information on whether, and how, data from national groundwater databases are accessible. These include a growing number of countries in Africa for which some groundwater data are available online, including the following examples:

*; Guinea Bissau

An online [https://portal.mwater.co/#/dashboards/9c20165c8763489b85baf898bda1dca3?share=2bb0050028d540298277e50208717545 '''MWater Portal'''] allows displays data from a database storing information on nearly 1000 water boreholes, with some groundwater data including borehole depth, static water level and selected water chemistry parameters.

*; Liberia

The online [https://wash-liberia.org/ '''WASH Liberia'''] portal provides access to data from two water point surveys done in 2011 and 2017, with limited groundwater information such as water point depth, whether water is available year-round, how long it is typically dry for, if seasonally dry; and qualitative water quality information.

*; Madagascar

A database developed for the SADC Hydrogeological Mapping project in 2010 is available to view in the [https://sadc-gip.org/layers/geonode:gip_BHdata_madagascar '''SADC GMI Groundwater Information Portal'''], with some groundwater data, including borehole depth, geology, aquifer type, water level, yield, and selected groundwater chemistry parameters.

*; Malawi

A database developed for the SADC Hydrogeological Mapping project in 2010 is available to view in the [https://sadc-gip.org/layers/geonode_data:geonode:BHdatabase_Malawi '''SADC GMI Groundwater Information Portal'''], with some groundwater data, including borehole depth, static water level, yield and how yield was measured, and some water chemistry parameters.

*; Namibia

The [https://www.na-mis.com/ '''Namibian Monitoring Information System (NA-MIS)'''] is an online interactive map viewer showing the locations of groundwater monitoring boreholes across Nambia and summary information on groundwater quality from monitoring boreholes. It also shows groundwater maps of Nambia: of aquifer/groundwater potential; groundwater abstraction; groundwater vulnerability; and recharge.
NA-MIS is available online via the [https://sadc-gmi.org/ SADC Groundwater Management Institute].

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*; Rwanda

The [https://waterportal.rwb.rw/ '''Rwanda Water Portal'''] allows access to groundwater level and conductivity monitoring data from a monitoring network of 24 boreholes (in 2021). Some of the groundwater level data is available to view in real time from telemetered boreholes.

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*; South Africa

The South Africa Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) has an online [https://www.dwa.gov.za/Groundwater/NGA.aspx '''National Groundwater Archive'''], which users can register for to explore groundwater related data.

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*; South Sudan

Data from a water point database collected in 2012 is available to view and download online at [https://data.humdata.org/dataset/south-sudan-water-sanitation-hygiene '''HDX - South Sudan Waterpoints'''], including groundwater data such as water point type, depth, static water level, and estimated yield.

*; Zimbabwe

Data from a database storing information on thousands of boreholes is available to view online in the [https://sadc-gip.org/layers/geonode_data:geonode:BHdatabase_Zimbabwe '''SADC-GIP Groundwater Information Portal'''], including groundwater data such as borehole depth, geology, aquifer type & potential, static water level, yield & how yield was measured, and selected water quality parameters.

==Groundwater Data Sources: Project-based and Private Sector==

Many projects and private industries carry out some form of groundwater data collection and/or monitoring. These data are often detailed, but usually focus on small areas and sometimes for short time scales (e.g. weeks to months, or in some cases a few years). These data holdings are rarely integrated with national, government-held databases. It can be difficult for people outside the project or private company to identify what data holdings exist, and if identified, to access the data.

An example of private sector groundwater data is groundwater level monitoring data for a shallow aquifer at a large mine in Kwale country, Kenya, which is collected by the mine operator Base Titanium. This data was shared by the mine operator with the [https://upgro.org/ UPGro] research project [https://upgro.org/consortium/gro-for-good/ Gro for Good], illustrated by a poster by [https://www.water.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/IAH-Poster-Presentation.pdf Mutua et al (2014)].

{|
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| [[File:MutuaetalPosterClip.PNG | thumb|500px | Poster by [https://www.water.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/IAH-Poster-Presentation.pdf Mutua et al (2014)] ]]
|}

An example of project-based groundwater level monitoring comes from a WaterAid project in Burkina Faso, where WaterAid initiated community-based water resource monitoring. More information is in this [[Case Study Community Monitoring Burkina Faso | '''case study on community monitoring in Burkina Faso''']].

{|
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| [[File:DippingHandDugWellBF.jpg | thumb|300px | Dipping the water level in a hand dug well. Image credit: Djibril Barry / WaterAid (2016) ]]
|}

===References===

Adelana SMA. 2009. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265687126_Monitoring_groundwater_use_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa_Issues_and_Challenges Monitoring groundwater resources in Sub-Saharan Africa: issues and challenges]. Groundwater and Climate in Africa: Proceedings of the Kampala Conference, June 2008, IAHS Publ. 334.

IGRAC. 2020. [https://www.un-igrac.org/resource/national-groundwater-monitoring-programmes-global-overview-quantitative-groundwater Groundwater monitoring programmes: A global overview of quantitative groundwater monitoring networks]

Sterckx A, Nijsten G-J, Gomo M, Lukas E and Kukurić N. 2019. [https://sadc-gmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/State-of-GW-data-in-SADC_20190131.pdf State of Groundwater Data Collection and Data Management in SADC Member States: Final report].

Return to [[Africa Groundwater Atlas Home | Africa Groundwater Atlas]] >> [[Additional resources | Resource pages]]

[[Category:Groundwater data]]
[[Category:Additional resources]]
[[Category:Africa Groundwater Atlas]]