OR/15/019 Background and rationale - Revision history

Ajhil at 10:21, 3 December 2019

2019-12-03T10:21:36Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:21, 3 December 2019
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	Extending access to improved services for the estimated 300 million inhabitants of SSA currently without access to safe water is fundamental to many development efforts to improve health, reduce poverty and increase the resilience of households to climate change (Hunter et al. 2009<ref name="Hunter 2009">Hunter PR, Zmirou‐Navier D, Hartemann P. 2009. Estimating the impact on health of poor reliability of drinking water interventions in developing countries. ''Science of the Total Environment 2009''; 407: 2621–4. </ref>; UNICEF 2012<ref name="UNICEF 2012">UNICEF. 2012. Sustainability check for the 'Acceleration of access to water supply, sanitation and Hygiene towards Reaching Rwanda’s Millennium Development goals' programme, Report for 2011, 54 pp. </ref>). Estimates suggest 340 million people have gained access to safe water over the period 1990 to 2010 under the umbrella of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs; UNICEF 2012<ref name="UNICEF 2012"></ref>). However, the focus on increased coverage and building new infrastructure under the MDGs has meant there has been little assessment of the sustainability of new water points, and this is increasingly recognised as having obscured a hidden crisis of supply failure (DFID, 2012<ref name="DFID">DFID 2012. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Portfolio Review. UK Department for International Development, March 2012 </ref>; Calow et al. 2013<ref name="Calow 2013">Calow RC, Ludi E and Tucker J (eds). 2013. Achieving water security: lessons from research in the water supply, sanitation and hygiene sector in Ethiopia. ''Practical Action Publishing''. </ref>). Furthermore, there were 64 million more people unserved in the region in 2012 compared to 1990.		Extending access to improved services for the estimated 300 million inhabitants of SSA currently without access to safe water is fundamental to many development efforts to improve health, reduce poverty and increase the resilience of households to climate change (Hunter et al. 2009<ref name="Hunter 2009">Hunter PR, Zmirou‐Navier D, Hartemann P. 2009. Estimating the impact on health of poor reliability of drinking water interventions in developing countries. ''Science of the Total Environment 2009''; 407: 2621–4. </ref>; UNICEF 2012<ref name="UNICEF 2012">UNICEF. 2012. Sustainability check for the 'Acceleration of access to water supply, sanitation and Hygiene towards Reaching Rwanda’s Millennium Development goals' programme, Report for 2011, 54 pp. </ref>). Estimates suggest 340 million people have gained access to safe water over the period 1990 to 2010 under the umbrella of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs; UNICEF 2012<ref name="UNICEF 2012"></ref>). However, the focus on increased coverage and building new infrastructure under the MDGs has meant there has been little assessment of the sustainability of new water points, and this is increasingly recognised as having obscured a hidden crisis of supply failure (DFID, 2012<ref name="DFID">DFID 2012. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Portfolio Review. UK Department for International Development, March 2012 </ref>; Calow et al. 2013<ref name="Calow 2013">Calow RC, Ludi E and Tucker J (eds). 2013. Achieving water security: lessons from research in the water supply, sanitation and hygiene sector in Ethiopia. ''Practical Action Publishing''. </ref>). Furthermore, there were 64 million more people unserved in the region in 2012 compared to 1990.

	Available evidence for SSA, albeit fragmented and methodologically unclear, suggests that 30% or more of groundwater‐based water supplies are non‐functional at the time of monitoring and a greater number can experience seasonal problems (for example 50% in Sierra Leone) (e.g. Haysom 2006<ref name="Haysom">Haysom A. 2006. A study of the factors affecting sustainability of rural water supplies in Tanzania. WaterAid, Dar er Salaam. </ref>; Rietveld et al. 2009<ref name="Rietveld">Rietveld LC, Haarhoff J, Jagals J'''. '''A tool for technical assessment of rural water supply systems in South Africa. ''Phys Chem Earth ''2009: '''34''': 43–9. </ref>; RWSN 2009<ref name="RWSN 2009">RWSN. 2009. Handpump Data, Selected Countries in Sub‐Saharan Africa, available at: [http://www.rwsn.ch/ http://www.rwsn.ch]</ref>; MoEWR 2012<ref name="MoWR"> MoWR 2012. Sierra Leone Waterpoint report. Ministry of Energy and Water Resources, Sierra Leone.</ref>). This failure of supplies is not a new problem. In fact the limited evidence available suggests that rates of failure have remained stubbornly high at around 30% over the past 40 years, despite a major shift towards increasing community management and demand responsive approaches in the 1980s by NGOs, governments and donors to try to improve supply sustainability (McPherson and McGarry 1992<ref name="McPherson">McPherson HJ and McGarry. 1992 International Journal of Water Resources Development 3 23–30.</ref>; Lockwood and Smits 2011<ref name="Lockwood">Lockwood H. and Smits S. 2011. Supporting rural water supply: moving towards a service delivery approach. 2011. London UK, Practical Action Publishing, and the The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. Pp 187. </ref>; Foster 2014<ref name="Foster">Foster, T. 2014. Predictors of Sustainability for Communiyt‐Managed Handpumps in sub‐Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierre Leone, and Uganda. ''Environmental Science and Technology'', (in press) </ref>). There is now growing recognition that long‐term functionality of supplies is dependent on a wide range of factors, but in the absence of an agreed diagnostic or evidence base on the extent and causes of failure, donors and national governments risk repeating mistakes and achieving poor value for money (de la Harpe 2012<ref name="de la">de la Harpe, J. 2012. ''Aid effectiveness and its relevance for sustainable water supplies'', Triple‐S Thinking Piece, May 2012, 8 pp. </ref>; Foster 2014<ref name="Foster"></ref>).		Available evidence for SSA, albeit fragmented and methodologically unclear, suggests that 30% or more of groundwater‐based water supplies are non‐functional at the time of monitoring and a greater number can experience seasonal problems (for example 50% in Sierra Leone) (e.g. Haysom 2006<ref name="Haysom">Haysom A. 2006. A study of the factors affecting sustainability of rural water supplies in Tanzania. WaterAid, Dar er Salaam. </ref>; Rietveld et al. 2009<ref name="Rietveld">Rietveld LC, Haarhoff J, Jagals J'''. '''A tool for technical assessment of rural water supply systems in South Africa. ''Phys Chem Earth ''2009: '''34''': 43–9. </ref>; RWSN 2009<ref name="RWSN 2009">RWSN. 2009. Handpump Data, Selected Countries in Sub‐Saharan Africa, available at: [http://www.rwsn.ch/ http://www.rwsn.ch]</ref>; MoEWR 2012<ref name="MoWR"> MoWR 2012. Sierra Leone Waterpoint report. Ministry of Energy and Water Resources, Sierra Leone.</ref>). This failure of supplies is not a new problem. In fact the limited evidence available suggests that rates of failure have remained stubbornly high at around 30% over the past 40 years, despite a major shift towards increasing community management and demand responsive approaches in the 1980s by NGOs, governments and donors to try to improve supply sustainability (McPherson and McGarry 1992<ref name="McPherson">McPherson HJ and McGarry. 1992 International Journal of Water Resources Development 3 23–30.</ref>; Lockwood and Smits 2011<ref name="Lockwood">Lockwood H. and Smits S. 2011. Supporting rural water supply: moving towards a service delivery approach. 2011. London UK, Practical Action Publishing, and the The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. pp 187. </ref>; Foster 2014<ref name="Foster">Foster, T. 2014. Predictors of Sustainability for Communiyt‐Managed Handpumps in sub‐Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierre Leone, and Uganda. ''Environmental Science and Technology'', (in press) </ref>). There is now growing recognition that long‐term functionality of supplies is dependent on a wide range of factors, but in the absence of an agreed diagnostic or evidence base on the extent and causes of failure, donors and national governments risk repeating mistakes and achieving poor value for money (de la Harpe 2012<ref name="de la">de la Harpe, J. 2012. ''Aid effectiveness and its relevance for sustainable water supplies'', Triple‐S Thinking Piece, May 2012, 8 pp. </ref>; Foster 2014<ref name="Foster"></ref>).

	Improving the sustainability of supplies is vital if the benefits — improved health, nutrition, time savings, education, particularly for the poorest — of original investments in WASH are not to be lost. DFID has earmarked over US$100 million for Ethiopia, with a similar sum set aside for Uganda, Sierra Leone and Malawi combined (Rietveld et al. 2009<ref name="Rietveld"></ref>). However the benefits of these future investments will be lost if improved supplies cannot be sustained (Adow et al 2013<ref name="Adow">Adow AK. 2013. Boreholes sustainability and poverty reduction in rural communities — practical experiences from boreholes provision in Atebubu and Afram Plains districts of Ghana, ''International Journal of Educational Research and Development'', 2; 2, 049–059. </ref>). In Malawi, Engineers without Borders estimated that $50 million injected into improving access to water by around 100 NGOs and 10 donors within the country in the last 10 years has had little impact on the sector’s overall ability to deliver sustainable supplies at scale (Triple‐S, 2013<ref name="Triple">Triple‐S. 2013. ''Fixing the sector and not just the pump: a systematic intervention in Malawi’s WASH sector'', Triple‐S report, June 2013, 4 pp. </ref>).		Improving the sustainability of supplies is vital if the benefits — improved health, nutrition, time savings, education, particularly for the poorest — of original investments in WASH are not to be lost. DFID has earmarked over US$100 million for Ethiopia, with a similar sum set aside for Uganda, Sierra Leone and Malawi combined (Rietveld et al. 2009<ref name="Rietveld"></ref>). However the benefits of these future investments will be lost if improved supplies cannot be sustained (Adow et al 2013<ref name="Adow">Adow AK. 2013. Boreholes sustainability and poverty reduction in rural communities — practical experiences from boreholes provision in Atebubu and Afram Plains districts of Ghana, ''International Journal of Educational Research and Development'', 2; 2, 049–059. </ref>). In Malawi, Engineers without Borders estimated that $50 million injected into improving access to water by around 100 NGOs and 10 donors within the country in the last 10 years has had little impact on the sector’s overall ability to deliver sustainable supplies at scale (Triple‐S, 2013<ref name="Triple">Triple‐S. 2013. ''Fixing the sector and not just the pump: a systematic intervention in Malawi’s WASH sector'', Triple‐S report, June 2013, 4 pp. </ref>).
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	''Community financing and management of supplies''<br>		''Community financing and management of supplies''<br>
	The need for community participation in the planning and implementation of rural water supply development projects became increasingly apparent in the 1980s when it was recognised that top‐ down centralised approaches were neither affordable nor effective (MacDonald et al. 2005<ref name="MacDondald 2005">MacDonald AM, Davies J, Calow RC, Chilton PJ. 2005. ''Developing groundwater: a guide for rural water supply. ''Rugby, UK : ITDG Publishing. </ref>). The ability of a community to repair, finance and manage a supply was thus considered essential to the sustainability of the service. Considerable effort has since been devoted in development initiatives in SSA to ensuring the proper establishment and functioning of community management committees and to build the capacity of local people to maintain the handpumps. Yet whilst there has been much work by Governments, NGOs and donors to enhance community‐based management of handpump supplies, persistently high non‐functionality rates have led some to question whether the emphasis on certain forms of community‐based management is part of the problem (Sara and Katz 1998<ref name="Sara">Sara J, and Katz T. 1998. Making rural water supply sustainable: report on impact of project rules; UNDP‐World Bank report, Water and Sanitation Programme: Washington, DC, 1998. </ref>; Schouten and Moriarty 2003<ref name="Schouten">Schouten T, Moriarty P'''. '''''Community water, community management: from system to service in rural areas. ''Rugby, UK: ITDG Publishing, 2003. </ref>; Foster 2014<ref name="Foster">Foster, T. 2014. Predictors of Sustainability for Communiyt‐Managed Handpumps in sub‐Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierre Leone, and Uganda. ''Environmental Science and Technology, ''(in press) </ref>).		The need for community participation in the planning and implementation of rural water supply development projects became increasingly apparent in the 1980s when it was recognised that top‐ down centralised approaches were neither affordable nor effective (MacDonald et al. 2005<ref name="MacDondald 2005">MacDonald AM, Davies J, Calow RC, Chilton PJ. 2005. ''Developing groundwater: a guide for rural water supply. ''Rugby, UK : ITDG Publishing. </ref>). The ability of a community to repair, finance and manage a supply was thus considered essential to the sustainability of the service. Considerable effort has since been devoted in development initiatives in SSA to ensuring the proper establishment and functioning of community management committees and to build the capacity of local people to maintain the handpumps. Yet whilst there has been much work by Governments, NGOs and donors to enhance community‐based management of handpump supplies, persistently high non‐functionality rates have led some to question whether the emphasis on certain forms of community‐based management is part of the problem (Sara and Katz 1998<ref name="Sara">Sara J, and Katz T. 1998. Making rural water supply sustainable: report on impact of project rules; UNDP‐World Bank report, Water and Sanitation Programme: Washington, DC, 1998. </ref>; Schouten and Moriarty 2003<ref name="Schouten">Schouten T, Moriarty P'''. '''''Community water, community management: from system to service in rural areas. ''Rugby, UK: ITDG Publishing, 2003. </ref>; Foster 2014</ref>).

	There is now a growing acceptance that rural communities are unable to manage their own water supplies without some degree of regular external support that encompasses monitoring, technical advice and assistance, and training (Harvey and Reed 2007<ref name="Harvey 2007">Harvey P, Reed R. 2007. Community‐managed water supplies in Africa: sustainable or dispensible? ''Community development Journal'', 42; 3; 356–378. </ref>; RWSN 2010<ref name="RWSN 2010"></ref>; IRC 2012<ref name="IRC">IRC 2012. Direct support post‐construction to rural water service providers, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre report: The Hague.</ref>; Foster 2014<ref name="Foster"></ref>) although gaps in this support remain. It is also questionable whether cost‐recovery is a feasible model for poor communities, many of whom struggle to finance minor repairs, and cannot afford initial capital costs, major repairs or rehabilitation. Finally, as with other causes of failure, there is very little knowledge or systematic evidence base to indicate when, or the extent to which, community finance and management of a supply can be considered a dominant factor of water point failure.		There is now a growing acceptance that rural communities are unable to manage their own water supplies without some degree of regular external support that encompasses monitoring, technical advice and assistance, and training (Harvey and Reed 2007<ref name="Harvey 2007">Harvey P, Reed R. 2007. Community‐managed water supplies in Africa: sustainable or dispensible? ''Community development Journal'', 42; 3; 356–378. </ref>; RWSN 2010<ref name="RWSN 2010"></ref>; IRC 2012<ref name="IRC">IRC 2012. Direct support post‐construction to rural water service providers, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre report: The Hague.</ref>; Foster 2014<ref name="Foster"></ref>) although gaps in this support remain. It is also questionable whether cost‐recovery is a feasible model for poor communities, many of whom struggle to finance minor repairs, and cannot afford initial capital costs, major repairs or rehabilitation. Finally, as with other causes of failure, there is very little knowledge or systematic evidence base to indicate when, or the extent to which, community finance and management of a supply can be considered a dominant factor of water point failure.

Ajhil: /* Review of previous work */

2019-12-03T10:20:35Z

Review of previous work

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	\| ''Sierre Leone''		\| ''Sierre Leone''
	\| 31–40%, with additional 17% abandoned<br>(''main issues identified to failure'': seasonal yield,<br>mechanical breakdown of handpump)		\| 31–40%, with additional 17% abandoned<br>(''main issues identified to failure'': seasonal yield,<br>mechanical breakdown of handpump)
	\| MoWR 2012<ref name="MoWR">~~MoWR 2012. Sierra Leone Waterpoint report. Ministry of Energy and Water Resources, Sierra Leone.~~</ref>		\| MoWR 2012<ref name="MoWR"></ref>
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Tanzania''		\| ''Tanzania''

Ajhil: /* Review of previous work */

2019-12-03T10:19:50Z

Review of previous work

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	==Review of previous work ==		==Review of previous work ==
	There are few systematic studies addressing the causes of groundwater based supply failure in Africa. Those that have been done have often been very small‐scale. With increasing appreciation of how common failure is, DFID, WaterAid, and other NGOs such as UNICEF, have begun to monitor sustainability of new supplies, or implement sustainability surveys (e.g. RWSN 2010<ref name="RWSN 2010"></ref>; Leclert 2012<ref name="Leclert">Leclert L. 2012. Status review of BSF’s borehole drilling component in South Sudan (2006–2012), BMB/Euroconsult, MottMacDonald report, 67 pp.</ref>). These data are now providing useful insights on a broader‐scale. The studies, however, are disparate in both their focus and methodologies, and the results are not directly comparable. In the absence of a common diagnostic framework varying definitions of failure are used and few of the studies consider all facets of service failure (many focusing on management of supplies, whilst others are focused on the quality of borehole construction, or the availability of groundwater resources e.g. Owolabi et al. 1991<ref name="Owolabi">Owolabi A. et al. 1994. Borehole failures in crystalline rocks of SW Nigeria, GeoJournal 34; 4 397–405 </ref>). Crucially, there is a lack of research on how the different facets of failure interact (e.g. technical and institutional factors) to cause failure of a water point. A few studies, such as those by Whittington et al. (2009)<ref name="Whittington">Whittington D, et al. 2009. How well is the demand‐driven, community management model for rural water supply systems doing? Evidence from Bolivia, Peru and Ghana, ''Water Policy, 2009'', 11; 6, 676–718.</ref> in Ghana, and Harvey et al (2002)<ref name="Harvey 2002">Harvey PA, Skinner BH, Reed RA. 2002. Sustaining handpumps in Africa: lessons from Zambia and Ghana, Field work Report. </ref> in Zambia (part of the ~~DFID‐ funded~~ research project ‘Guidelines for Sustainable Handpumps in Africa’), have evaluated the significance of different factors contributing to supply failure within an individual area, but in the absence of a common framework with which to compare these studies and extrapolate the results to similar hydrogeological or institutional settings. Many functionality surveys and data sets are collected during rapid assessments. It is rarely possible to discern the exact causes of failure with any great certainty from simply observing a water source and speaking to a limited number of users at a single point in time.		There are few systematic studies addressing the causes of groundwater based supply failure in Africa. Those that have been done have often been very small‐scale. With increasing appreciation of how common failure is, DFID, WaterAid, and other NGOs such as UNICEF, have begun to monitor sustainability of new supplies, or implement sustainability surveys (e.g. RWSN 2010<ref name="RWSN 2010"></ref>; Leclert 2012<ref name="Leclert">Leclert L. 2012. Status review of BSF’s borehole drilling component in South Sudan (2006–2012), BMB/Euroconsult, MottMacDonald report, 67 pp.</ref>). These data are now providing useful insights on a broader‐scale. The studies, however, are disparate in both their focus and methodologies, and the results are not directly comparable. In the absence of a common diagnostic framework varying definitions of failure are used and few of the studies consider all facets of service failure (many focusing on management of supplies, whilst others are focused on the quality of borehole construction, or the availability of groundwater resources e.g. Owolabi et al. 1991<ref name="Owolabi">Owolabi A. et al. 1994. Borehole failures in crystalline rocks of SW Nigeria, GeoJournal 34; 4 397–405 </ref>). Crucially, there is a lack of research on how the different facets of failure interact (e.g. technical and institutional factors) to cause failure of a water point. A few studies, such as those by Whittington et al. (2009)<ref name="Whittington">Whittington D, et al. 2009. How well is the demand‐driven, community management model for rural water supply systems doing? Evidence from Bolivia, Peru and Ghana, ''Water Policy, 2009'', 11; 6, 676–718.</ref> in Ghana, and Harvey et al (2002)<ref name="Harvey 2002">Harvey PA, Skinner BH, Reed RA. 2002. Sustaining handpumps in Africa: lessons from Zambia and Ghana, Field work Report. </ref> in Zambia (part of the DFID‐funded research project ‘Guidelines for Sustainable Handpumps in Africa’), have evaluated the significance of different factors contributing to supply failure within an individual area, but in the absence of a common framework with which to compare these studies and extrapolate the results to similar hydrogeological or institutional settings. Many functionality surveys and data sets are collected during rapid assessments. It is rarely possible to discern the exact causes of failure with any great certainty from simply observing a water source and speaking to a limited number of users at a single point in time.

	Despite these limitations, the available studies and post‐construction audits examining water point functionality in SSA do provide some insight into the scale of non‐functionality in handpump supplies, and also importantly, to the prevalent primary '''''symptoms '''''and '''''causal factors '''''of failure. The limited evidence suggests that rates of failure have remained stubbornly high at between 30 and 50% over the past 40 years (McPherson and McGarry 1992<ref name="MacPherson">McPherson HJ and McGarry. 1992 International Journal of Water Resources Development 3 23–30. </ref>; Lockwood and Smits 2011<ref name="Lockwood 2011">Lockwood H. and Smits S. Supporting rural water supply: moving towards a service delivery approach. 2011. London UK, Practical Action Publishing, and the The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. Pp 187. </ref>). Non‐functionality figures in Africa are indicated to be approximately 30%, and there are shown to be similar symptoms of failure across a range of physical, social and governance settings and in different countries — namely, insufficient yield, poor water quality, or a range mechanical failures (e.g. from breakdown of head works, or corrosion) — Table 1.		Despite these limitations, the available studies and post‐construction audits examining water point functionality in SSA do provide some insight into the scale of non‐functionality in handpump supplies, and also importantly, to the prevalent primary '''''symptoms '''''and '''''causal factors '''''of failure. The limited evidence suggests that rates of failure have remained stubbornly high at between 30 and 50% over the past 40 years (McPherson and McGarry 1992<ref name="MacPherson">McPherson HJ and McGarry. 1992 International Journal of Water Resources Development 3 23–30. </ref>; Lockwood and Smits 2011<ref name="Lockwood 2011">Lockwood H. and Smits S. Supporting rural water supply: moving towards a service delivery approach. 2011. London UK, Practical Action Publishing, and the The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. Pp 187. </ref>). Non‐functionality figures in Africa are indicated to be approximately 30%, and there are shown to be similar symptoms of failure across a range of physical, social and governance settings and in different countries — namely, insufficient yield, poor water quality, or a range mechanical failures (e.g. from breakdown of head works, or corrosion) — Table 1.

Dbk: /* The evidence challenge and key research issues */

2015-07-28T09:58:40Z

The evidence challenge and key research issues

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:58, 28 July 2015
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	''Procurement processes and supervision for drilling and installation''<br>		''Procurement processes and supervision for drilling and installation''<br>
	Other studies have highlighted the critical importance of the procurement process for high quality construction of water points and the long‐term functionality and sustainability of the points (RWSN 2010<ref name="RWSN 2010"></ref>). Myths of the rural Water Supply Sector, RWSN Executive Steering Committee: St Galllen, Switzerland.). Drillers can either be paid in a lump sum for the number of boreholes to be drilled, or according to a bill of quantities, wherein drillers are paid per metre drilled, and per hour for development (e.g. purging and test pumping) and completion (e.g. insertion of sanitary seal, cleaning of borehole) of a water point. Procurement by a bill of quantities has been found to be much more successful in creating the right environment and incentives for ensuring careful and higher quality construction of boreholes, as opposed to a one off payment, in which boreholes are often drilled too shallow, or completed unsatisfactorily (e.g. incorrect backfill, incomplete sanitary seals). In contrast, ‘no water‐no pay’ contracts, for example, may encourage drillers to pass as 'successful' boreholes which in fact have marginal yields at the time of construction and which may be even less satisfactory in drier times.		Other studies have highlighted the critical importance of the procurement process for high quality construction of water points and the long‐term functionality and sustainability of the points (RWSN 2010<ref name="RWSN 2010">RWSN. 2010. Myths of the rural Water Supply Sector, RWSN Executive Steering Committee: St Galllen, Switzerland. </ref>). Myths of the rural Water Supply Sector, RWSN Executive Steering Committee: St Galllen, Switzerland.). Drillers can either be paid in a lump sum for the number of boreholes to be drilled, or according to a bill of quantities, wherein drillers are paid per metre drilled, and per hour for development (e.g. purging and test pumping) and completion (e.g. insertion of sanitary seal, cleaning of borehole) of a water point. Procurement by a bill of quantities has been found to be much more successful in creating the right environment and incentives for ensuring careful and higher quality construction of boreholes, as opposed to a one off payment, in which boreholes are often drilled too shallow, or completed unsatisfactorily (e.g. incorrect backfill, incomplete sanitary seals). In contrast, ‘no water‐no pay’ contracts, for example, may encourage drillers to pass as 'successful' boreholes which in fact have marginal yields at the time of construction and which may be even less satisfactory in drier times.

	Effective and value‐for‐money contracting also requires adequate technical supervision of the key stages of the construction process, and the pricing of contracts is also important. If the ‘per metre’ drilling rate is very high compared to the ‘per hour’ or ‘lump sum’ rates, then in the absence of supervision there may be a temptation to drill deeper than strictly necessary and take short cuts on other parts of the construction process such as cleaning, developing and testing the borehole and completing backfill, sanitary seals and headworks.		Effective and value‐for‐money contracting also requires adequate technical supervision of the key stages of the construction process, and the pricing of contracts is also important. If the ‘per metre’ drilling rate is very high compared to the ‘per hour’ or ‘lump sum’ rates, then in the absence of supervision there may be a temptation to drill deeper than strictly necessary and take short cuts on other parts of the construction process such as cleaning, developing and testing the borehole and completing backfill, sanitary seals and headworks.

Dbk: /* The evidence challenge and key research issues */

2015-07-28T09:58:06Z

The evidence challenge and key research issues

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:58, 28 July 2015
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	''Procurement processes and supervision for drilling and installation''<br>		''Procurement processes and supervision for drilling and installation''<br>
	Other studies have highlighted the critical importance of the procurement process for high quality construction of water points and the long‐term functionality and sustainability of the points (RWSN 2010<ref name="RWSN 2010">~~RWSN. 2010~~. Myths of the rural Water Supply Sector, RWSN Executive Steering Committee: St Galllen, Switzerland.). Drillers can either be paid in a lump sum for the number of boreholes to be drilled, or according to a bill of quantities, wherein drillers are paid per metre drilled, and per hour for development (e.g. purging and test pumping) and completion (e.g. insertion of sanitary seal, cleaning of borehole) of a water point. Procurement by a bill of quantities has been found to be much more successful in creating the right environment and incentives for ensuring careful and higher quality construction of boreholes, as opposed to a one off payment, in which boreholes are often drilled too shallow, or completed unsatisfactorily (e.g. incorrect backfill, incomplete sanitary seals). In contrast, ‘no water‐no pay’ contracts, for example, may encourage drillers to pass as 'successful' boreholes which in fact have marginal yields at the time of construction and which may be even less satisfactory in drier times.		Other studies have highlighted the critical importance of the procurement process for high quality construction of water points and the long‐term functionality and sustainability of the points (RWSN 2010<ref name="RWSN 2010"></ref>). Myths of the rural Water Supply Sector, RWSN Executive Steering Committee: St Galllen, Switzerland.). Drillers can either be paid in a lump sum for the number of boreholes to be drilled, or according to a bill of quantities, wherein drillers are paid per metre drilled, and per hour for development (e.g. purging and test pumping) and completion (e.g. insertion of sanitary seal, cleaning of borehole) of a water point. Procurement by a bill of quantities has been found to be much more successful in creating the right environment and incentives for ensuring careful and higher quality construction of boreholes, as opposed to a one off payment, in which boreholes are often drilled too shallow, or completed unsatisfactorily (e.g. incorrect backfill, incomplete sanitary seals). In contrast, ‘no water‐no pay’ contracts, for example, may encourage drillers to pass as 'successful' boreholes which in fact have marginal yields at the time of construction and which may be even less satisfactory in drier times.

	Effective and value‐for‐money contracting also requires adequate technical supervision of the key stages of the construction process, and the pricing of contracts is also important. If the ‘per metre’ drilling rate is very high compared to the ‘per hour’ or ‘lump sum’ rates, then in the absence of supervision there may be a temptation to drill deeper than strictly necessary and take short cuts on other parts of the construction process such as cleaning, developing and testing the borehole and completing backfill, sanitary seals and headworks.		Effective and value‐for‐money contracting also requires adequate technical supervision of the key stages of the construction process, and the pricing of contracts is also important. If the ‘per metre’ drilling rate is very high compared to the ‘per hour’ or ‘lump sum’ rates, then in the absence of supervision there may be a temptation to drill deeper than strictly necessary and take short cuts on other parts of the construction process such as cleaning, developing and testing the borehole and completing backfill, sanitary seals and headworks.

Dbk at 09:56, 28 July 2015

2015-07-28T09:56:53Z

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Dbk: /* Review of previous work */

2015-07-28T09:52:59Z

Review of previous work

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:52, 28 July 2015
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	\| ''Sierre Leone''		\| ''Sierre Leone''
	\| 31–40%, with additional 17% abandoned<br>(''main issues identified to failure'': seasonal yield,<br>mechanical breakdown of handpump)		\| 31–40%, with additional 17% abandoned<br>(''main issues identified to failure'': seasonal yield,<br>mechanical breakdown of handpump)
	\| MoWR 2012		\| MoWR 2012<ref name="MoWR">MoWR 2012. Sierra Leone Waterpoint report. Ministry of Energy and Water Resources, Sierra Leone.</ref>
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Tanzania''		\| ''Tanzania''

Dbk at 09:51, 28 July 2015

2015-07-28T09:51:41Z

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Dbk at 09:20, 28 July 2015

2015-07-28T09:20:06Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:20, 28 July 2015
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	Extending access to improved services for the estimated 300 million inhabitants of SSA currently without access to safe water is fundamental to many development efforts to improve health, reduce poverty and increase the resilience of households to climate change (Hunter et al. 2009<ref name="Hunter 2009">Hunter PR, Zmirou‐Navier D, Hartemann P. 2009. Estimating the impact on health of poor reliability of drinking water interventions in developing countries. ''Science of the Total Environment 2009''; 407: 2621–4. </ref>; UNICEF 2012<ref name="UNICEF 2012">UNICEF. 2012. Sustainability check for the 'Acceleration of access to water supply, sanitation and Hygiene towards Reaching Rwanda’s Millennium Development goals' programme, Report for 2011, 54 pp. </ref>). Estimates suggest 340 million people have gained access to safe water over the period 1990 to 2010 under the umbrella of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs; UNICEF 2012<ref name="UNICEF 2012"></ref>). However, the focus on increased coverage and building new infrastructure under the MDGs has meant there has been little assessment of the sustainability of new water points, and this is increasingly recognised as having obscured a hidden crisis of supply failure (DFID, 2012<ref name="DFID">DFID 2012. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Portfolio Review. UK Department for International Development, March 2012 </ref>; Calow et al. 2013<ref name="Calow 2013">Calow RC, Ludi E and Tucker J (eds). 2013. Achieving water security: lessons from research in the water supply, sanitation and hygiene sector in Ethiopia. ''Practical Action Publishing''. </ref>). Furthermore, there were 64 million more people unserved in the region in 2012 compared to 1990.		Extending access to improved services for the estimated 300 million inhabitants of SSA currently without access to safe water is fundamental to many development efforts to improve health, reduce poverty and increase the resilience of households to climate change (Hunter et al. 2009<ref name="Hunter 2009">Hunter PR, Zmirou‐Navier D, Hartemann P. 2009. Estimating the impact on health of poor reliability of drinking water interventions in developing countries. ''Science of the Total Environment 2009''; 407: 2621–4. </ref>; UNICEF 2012<ref name="UNICEF 2012">UNICEF. 2012. Sustainability check for the 'Acceleration of access to water supply, sanitation and Hygiene towards Reaching Rwanda’s Millennium Development goals' programme, Report for 2011, 54 pp. </ref>). Estimates suggest 340 million people have gained access to safe water over the period 1990 to 2010 under the umbrella of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs; UNICEF 2012<ref name="UNICEF 2012"></ref>). However, the focus on increased coverage and building new infrastructure under the MDGs has meant there has been little assessment of the sustainability of new water points, and this is increasingly recognised as having obscured a hidden crisis of supply failure (DFID, 2012<ref name="DFID">DFID 2012. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Portfolio Review. UK Department for International Development, March 2012 </ref>; Calow et al. 2013<ref name="Calow 2013">Calow RC, Ludi E and Tucker J (eds). 2013. Achieving water security: lessons from research in the water supply, sanitation and hygiene sector in Ethiopia. ''Practical Action Publishing''. </ref>). Furthermore, there were 64 million more people unserved in the region in 2012 compared to 1990.

	Available evidence for SSA, albeit fragmented and methodologically unclear, suggests that 30% or more of groundwater‐based water supplies are non‐functional at the time of monitoring and a greater number can experience seasonal problems (for example 50% in Sierra Leone) (e.g. Haysom 2006<ref name="Haysom">Haysom A. 2006. A study of the factors affecting sustainability of rural water supplies in Tanzania. WaterAid, Dar er Salaam. </ref>; Rietveld et al. 2009<ref name="Rietveld">Rietveld LC, Haarhoff J, Jagals J'''. '''A tool for technical assessment of rural water supply systems in South Africa. ''Phys Chem Earth ''2009: '''34''': 43‐9. </ref>; RWSN 2009<ref name="RWSN">RWSN. 2009. Handpump Data, Selected Countries in Sub‐Saharan Africa, available at: [http://www.rwsn.ch/ http://www.rwsn.ch] RWSN. 2010. Myths of the rural Water Supply Sector, RWSN Executive Steering Committee: St Galllen, Switzerland. RWSN. 2010. Code of Practice for Cost Effective Boreholes, June 2010, available at: [http://www.rwsn.ch/ http://][http://www.rwsn.ch/ www.rwsn.ch]</ref>; MoEWR 2012). This failure of supplies is not a new problem. In fact the limited evidence available suggests that rates of failure have remained stubbornly high at around 30% over the past 40 years, despite a major shift towards increasing community management and demand responsive approaches in the 1980s by NGOs, governments and donors to try to improve supply sustainability (McPherson and McGarry 1992<ref name="McPherson">McPherson HJ and McGarry. 1992 International Journal of Water Resources Development 3 23‐30 MoWR 2012. Sierra Leone Waterpoint report. Ministry of Energy and Water Resources, Sierra Leone~~. MWE. 2010. The Water Supply Atlas, Ministry of Water and Environment, Uganda~~. </ref>; Lockwood and Smits 2011<ref name="Lockwood">Lockwood H. and Smits S. 2011. Supporting rural water supply: moving towards a service delivery approach. 2011. London UK, Practical Action Publishing, and the The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. Pp 187. </ref>; Foster 2014<ref name="Foster">Foster, T. 2014. Predictors of Sustainability for Communiyt‐Managed Handpumps in sub‐Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierre Leone, and Uganda. ''Environmental Science and Technology'', (in press) </ref>). There is now growing recognition that long‐term functionality of supplies is dependent on a wide range of factors, but in the absence of an agreed diagnostic or evidence base on the extent and causes of failure, donors and national governments risk repeating mistakes and achieving poor value for money (de la Harpe 2012<ref name="de la">de la Harpe, J. 2012. ''Aid effectiveness and its relevance for sustainable water supplies'', Triple‐S Thinking Piece, May 2012, 8 pp. </ref>; Foster 2014<ref name="Foster"></ref>).		Available evidence for SSA, albeit fragmented and methodologically unclear, suggests that 30% or more of groundwater‐based water supplies are non‐functional at the time of monitoring and a greater number can experience seasonal problems (for example 50% in Sierra Leone) (e.g. Haysom 2006<ref name="Haysom">Haysom A. 2006. A study of the factors affecting sustainability of rural water supplies in Tanzania. WaterAid, Dar er Salaam. </ref>; Rietveld et al. 2009<ref name="Rietveld">Rietveld LC, Haarhoff J, Jagals J'''. '''A tool for technical assessment of rural water supply systems in South Africa. ''Phys Chem Earth ''2009: '''34''': 43‐9. </ref>; RWSN 2009<ref name="RWSN">RWSN. 2009. Handpump Data, Selected Countries in Sub‐Saharan Africa, available at: [http://www.rwsn.ch/ http://www.rwsn.ch] RWSN. 2010. Myths of the rural Water Supply Sector, RWSN Executive Steering Committee: St Galllen, Switzerland. RWSN. 2010. Code of Practice for Cost Effective Boreholes, June 2010, available at: [http://www.rwsn.ch/ http://][http://www.rwsn.ch/ www.rwsn.ch]</ref>; MoEWR 2012). This failure of supplies is not a new problem. In fact the limited evidence available suggests that rates of failure have remained stubbornly high at around 30% over the past 40 years, despite a major shift towards increasing community management and demand responsive approaches in the 1980s by NGOs, governments and donors to try to improve supply sustainability (McPherson and McGarry 1992<ref name="McPherson">McPherson HJ and McGarry. 1992 International Journal of Water Resources Development 3 23‐30 MoWR 2012. Sierra Leone Waterpoint report. Ministry of Energy and Water Resources, Sierra Leone. </ref>; Lockwood and Smits 2011<ref name="Lockwood">Lockwood H. and Smits S. 2011. Supporting rural water supply: moving towards a service delivery approach. 2011. London UK, Practical Action Publishing, and the The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. Pp 187. </ref>; Foster 2014<ref name="Foster">Foster, T. 2014. Predictors of Sustainability for Communiyt‐Managed Handpumps in sub‐Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierre Leone, and Uganda. ''Environmental Science and Technology'', (in press) </ref>). There is now growing recognition that long‐term functionality of supplies is dependent on a wide range of factors, but in the absence of an agreed diagnostic or evidence base on the extent and causes of failure, donors and national governments risk repeating mistakes and achieving poor value for money (de la Harpe 2012<ref name="de la">de la Harpe, J. 2012. ''Aid effectiveness and its relevance for sustainable water supplies'', Triple‐S Thinking Piece, May 2012, 8 pp. </ref>; Foster 2014<ref name="Foster"></ref>).

	Improving the sustainability of supplies is vital if the benefits — improved health, nutrition, time savings, education, particularly for the poorest — of original investments in WASH are not to be lost. DFID has earmarked over US$100 million for Ethiopia, with a similar sum set aside for Uganda, Sierra Leone and Malawi combined (Rietveld et al. 2009<ref name="Rietveld"></ref>). However the benefits of these future investments will be lost if improved supplies cannot be sustained (Adow et al 2013<ref name="Adow">Adow AK. 2013. Boreholes sustainability and poverty reduction in rural communities — practical experiences from boreholes provision in Atebubu and Afram Plains districts of Ghana, ''International Journal of Educational Research and Development'', 2; 2, 049–059. </ref>). In Malawi, Engineers without Borders estimated that $50 million injected into improving access to water by around 100 NGOs and 10 donors within the country in the last 10 years has had little impact on the sector’s overall ability to deliver sustainable supplies at scale (Triple‐S, 2013<ref name="Triple">Triple‐S. 2013. ''Fixing the sector and not just the pump: a systematic intervention in Malawi’s WASH sector'', Triple‐S report, June 2013, 4 pp. </ref>).		Improving the sustainability of supplies is vital if the benefits — improved health, nutrition, time savings, education, particularly for the poorest — of original investments in WASH are not to be lost. DFID has earmarked over US$100 million for Ethiopia, with a similar sum set aside for Uganda, Sierra Leone and Malawi combined (Rietveld et al. 2009<ref name="Rietveld"></ref>). However the benefits of these future investments will be lost if improved supplies cannot be sustained (Adow et al 2013<ref name="Adow">Adow AK. 2013. Boreholes sustainability and poverty reduction in rural communities — practical experiences from boreholes provision in Atebubu and Afram Plains districts of Ghana, ''International Journal of Educational Research and Development'', 2; 2, 049–059. </ref>). In Malawi, Engineers without Borders estimated that $50 million injected into improving access to water by around 100 NGOs and 10 donors within the country in the last 10 years has had little impact on the sector’s overall ability to deliver sustainable supplies at scale (Triple‐S, 2013<ref name="Triple">Triple‐S. 2013. ''Fixing the sector and not just the pump: a systematic intervention in Malawi’s WASH sector'', Triple‐S report, June 2013, 4 pp. </ref>).
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	There are few systematic studies addressing the causes of groundwater based supply failure in Africa. Those that have been done have often been very small‐scale. With increasing appreciation of how common failure is, DFID, WaterAid, and other NGOs such as UNICEF, have begun to monitor sustainability of new supplies, or implement sustainability surveys (e.g. RWSN 2010<ref name="RWSN"></ref>; Leclert 2012<ref name="Leclert">Leclert L. 2012. Status review of BSF’s borehole drilling component in South Sudan (2006–2012), BMB/Euroconsult, MottMacDonald report, 67 pp.</ref>). These data are now providing useful insights on a broader‐scale. The studies, however, are disparate in both their focus and methodologies, and the results are not directly comparable. In the absence of a common diagnostic framework varying definitions of failure are used and few of the studies consider all facets of service failure (many focusing on management of supplies, whilst others are focused on the quality of borehole construction, or the availability of groundwater resources e.g. Owolabi et al. 1991<ref name="Owolabi">Owolabi A. et al. 1994. Borehole failures in crystalline rocks of SW Nigeria, GeoJournal 34; 4 397–405 </ref>). Crucially, there is a lack of research on how the different facets of failure interact (e.g. technical and institutional factors) to cause failure of a water point. A few studies, such as those by Whittington et al. (2009)<ref name="Whittington">Whittington D, et al. 2009. How well is the demand‐driven, community management model for rural water supply systems doing? Evidence from Bolivia, Peru and Ghana, ''Water Policy, 2009'', 11; 6, 676–718.</ref> in Ghana, and Harvey et al (2002)<ref name="Harvey 2002">Harvey PA, Skinner BH, Reed RA. 2002. Sustaining handpumps in Africa: lessons from Zambia and Ghana, Field work Report. </ref> in Zambia (part of the DFID‐ funded research project ‘Guidelines for Sustainable Handpumps in Africa’), have evaluated the significance of different factors contributing to supply failure within an individual area, but in the absence of a common framework with which to compare these studies and extrapolate the results to similar hydrogeological or institutional settings. Many functionality surveys and data sets are collected during rapid assessments. It is rarely possible to discern the exact causes of failure with any great certainty from simply observing a water source and speaking to a limited number of users at a single point in time.		There are few systematic studies addressing the causes of groundwater based supply failure in Africa. Those that have been done have often been very small‐scale. With increasing appreciation of how common failure is, DFID, WaterAid, and other NGOs such as UNICEF, have begun to monitor sustainability of new supplies, or implement sustainability surveys (e.g. RWSN 2010<ref name="RWSN"></ref>; Leclert 2012<ref name="Leclert">Leclert L. 2012. Status review of BSF’s borehole drilling component in South Sudan (2006–2012), BMB/Euroconsult, MottMacDonald report, 67 pp.</ref>). These data are now providing useful insights on a broader‐scale. The studies, however, are disparate in both their focus and methodologies, and the results are not directly comparable. In the absence of a common diagnostic framework varying definitions of failure are used and few of the studies consider all facets of service failure (many focusing on management of supplies, whilst others are focused on the quality of borehole construction, or the availability of groundwater resources e.g. Owolabi et al. 1991<ref name="Owolabi">Owolabi A. et al. 1994. Borehole failures in crystalline rocks of SW Nigeria, GeoJournal 34; 4 397–405 </ref>). Crucially, there is a lack of research on how the different facets of failure interact (e.g. technical and institutional factors) to cause failure of a water point. A few studies, such as those by Whittington et al. (2009)<ref name="Whittington">Whittington D, et al. 2009. How well is the demand‐driven, community management model for rural water supply systems doing? Evidence from Bolivia, Peru and Ghana, ''Water Policy, 2009'', 11; 6, 676–718.</ref> in Ghana, and Harvey et al (2002)<ref name="Harvey 2002">Harvey PA, Skinner BH, Reed RA. 2002. Sustaining handpumps in Africa: lessons from Zambia and Ghana, Field work Report. </ref> in Zambia (part of the DFID‐ funded research project ‘Guidelines for Sustainable Handpumps in Africa’), have evaluated the significance of different factors contributing to supply failure within an individual area, but in the absence of a common framework with which to compare these studies and extrapolate the results to similar hydrogeological or institutional settings. Many functionality surveys and data sets are collected during rapid assessments. It is rarely possible to discern the exact causes of failure with any great certainty from simply observing a water source and speaking to a limited number of users at a single point in time.

	Despite these limitations, the available studies and post‐construction audits examining water point functionality in SSA do provide some insight into the scale of non‐functionality in handpump supplies, and also importantly, to the prevalent primary '''''symptoms '''''and '''''causal factors '''''of failure. The limited evidence suggests that rates of failure have remained stubbornly high at between 30 and 50% over the past 40 years (McPherson and McGarry 1992<ref name="MacPherson">McPherson HJ and McGarry. 1992 International Journal of Water Resources Development 3 23–30 MoWR 2012. Sierra Leone Waterpoint report. Ministry of Energy and Water Resources, Sierra Leone~~. MWE. 2010. The Water Supply Atlas, Ministry of Water and Environment, Uganda~~. </ref>; Lockwood and Smits 2011<ref name="Lockwood 2011">Lockwood H. and Smits S. Supporting rural water supply: moving towards a service delivery approach. 2011. London UK, Practical Action Publishing, and the The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. Pp 187. </ref>). Non‐functionality figures in Africa are indicated to be approximately 30%, and there are shown to be similar symptoms of failure across a range of physical, social and governance settings and in different countries — namely, insufficient yield, poor water quality, or a range mechanical failures (e.g. from breakdown of head works, or corrosion) — Table 1.		Despite these limitations, the available studies and post‐construction audits examining water point functionality in SSA do provide some insight into the scale of non‐functionality in handpump supplies, and also importantly, to the prevalent primary '''''symptoms '''''and '''''causal factors '''''of failure. The limited evidence suggests that rates of failure have remained stubbornly high at between 30 and 50% over the past 40 years (McPherson and McGarry 1992<ref name="MacPherson">McPherson HJ and McGarry. 1992 International Journal of Water Resources Development 3 23–30 MoWR 2012. Sierra Leone Waterpoint report. Ministry of Energy and Water Resources, Sierra Leone. </ref>; Lockwood and Smits 2011<ref name="Lockwood 2011">Lockwood H. and Smits S. Supporting rural water supply: moving towards a service delivery approach. 2011. London UK, Practical Action Publishing, and the The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. Pp 187. </ref>). Non‐functionality figures in Africa are indicated to be approximately 30%, and there are shown to be similar symptoms of failure across a range of physical, social and governance settings and in different countries — namely, insufficient yield, poor water quality, or a range mechanical failures (e.g. from breakdown of head works, or corrosion) — Table 1.

	A review of UNICEF drilling programmes in Malawi by Anscombe (1996)<ref name="Anscombe">Anscombe JR. 1996. Quality assurance of UNICEF drilling programmes for boreholes in Malawi, Final Report, Rural Water Supply Ltd, report, 79 pp </ref> found that 93% of the 100 supplies surveyed were functioning but a further 25% of these supplies had some problems with insufficient yield and inadequate quality. In up to 15% of supplies there was premature wear caused by high demands (>100 households using the supply), and in 10% poor maintenance due to unmotivated Water User Committees (WUCs) at the supplies. In Nigeria a post‐construction audit of borehole handpump supplies found success rates varied by up to 30% between different drillers (varying from 70–100%) (Owolabi et al. 1994<ref name="Owolabi"></ref>). There the primary symptom of failed supplies was seasonally low yield. The study focused heavily on the technical factors contributing to failures, but nevertheless provided useful insights into the most common causes of failure in the crystalline Basement Complex aquifers in southwest Nigeria: improper casing of the overburden and failure of the boreholes to penetrate the main water‐bearing horizons being the main factors (Owolabi et al. 1994)<ref name="Owolabi"></ref>.		A review of UNICEF drilling programmes in Malawi by Anscombe (1996)<ref name="Anscombe">Anscombe JR. 1996. Quality assurance of UNICEF drilling programmes for boreholes in Malawi, Final Report, Rural Water Supply Ltd, report, 79 pp </ref> found that 93% of the 100 supplies surveyed were functioning but a further 25% of these supplies had some problems with insufficient yield and inadequate quality. In up to 15% of supplies there was premature wear caused by high demands (>100 households using the supply), and in 10% poor maintenance due to unmotivated Water User Committees (WUCs) at the supplies. In Nigeria a post‐construction audit of borehole handpump supplies found success rates varied by up to 30% between different drillers (varying from 70–100%) (Owolabi et al. 1994<ref name="Owolabi"></ref>). There the primary symptom of failed supplies was seasonally low yield. The study focused heavily on the technical factors contributing to failures, but nevertheless provided useful insights into the most common causes of failure in the crystalline Basement Complex aquifers in southwest Nigeria: improper casing of the overburden and failure of the boreholes to penetrate the main water‐bearing horizons being the main factors (Owolabi et al. 1994)<ref name="Owolabi"></ref>.

Dbk: /* Review of previous work */

2015-07-28T09:02:34Z

Review of previous work

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:02, 28 July 2015
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	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	\|+ Table 1 A summary of some of the functionality data available from individual studies and audits across sub‐Saharan Africa. The functionality figures do not reflect national average figures.		\|+ Table 1 A summary of some of the functionality data available from individual studies and audits across sub‐Saharan Africa. The functionality figures do not reflect national average figures.

	\| ''Country of local study''		\| ''Country of local study''
	\| ''Water point non‐functionality''		\| ''Water point non‐functionality''
	\| ''Source''		\| ''Source''
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Angola''		\| ''Angola''
	\| 30%		\| 30%
	\| RWSN 2009<ref name="RWSN"></ref>		\| RWSN 2009<ref name="RWSN"></ref>
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Burkino Faso''		\| ''Burkino Faso''
	\| 25%		\| 25%
	\| RWSN 2009<ref name="RWSN"></ref>		\| RWSN 2009<ref name="RWSN"></ref>
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Benin''		\| ''Benin''
	\| 22%		\| 22%
	\| RWSN 2009<ref name="RWSN"></ref>		\| RWSN 2009<ref name="RWSN"></ref>
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Cambodia''		\| ''Cambodia''
	\| 22%		\| 22%
	\| SNV 2013		\| SNV 2013
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''DR Congo''		\| ''DR Congo''
	\| 33‐55% non‐functional or partially functional<br>(''main issues'': poor quality, handpump failure)		\| 33‐55% non‐functional or partially functional<br>(''main issues'': poor quality, handpump failure)
	\| SNV 2013		\| SNV 2013
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Ethiopia''		\| ''Ethiopia''
	\| 18–35% (average, excl. abandoned supplies)<br>(40% due to technical failure, 13% watertable drawdown,<br>7% water quality)		\| 18–35% (average, excl. abandoned supplies)<br>(40% due to technical failure, 13% watertable drawdown,<br>7% water quality)
	\| Deneke and Hawassa 2008<ref name="Deneke">Deneke I, Hawassa HA. 2008. The Sustainability of Water Supply Schemes: as case study in Mirab Abaya woredo. RiPPLE Working Paper 4, 89 pp. </ref>		\| Deneke and Hawassa 2008<ref name="Deneke">Deneke I, Hawassa HA. 2008. The Sustainability of Water Supply Schemes: as case study in Mirab Abaya woredo. RiPPLE Working Paper 4, 89 pp. </ref>
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Ghana''		\| ''Ghana''
	\| 21–30%<br>(''main issues'': mechanical failure of handpumps)		\| 21–30%<br>(''main issues'': mechanical failure of handpumps)
	\| Samani et al 2013<ref name="Samani">Samani, Destina and Apolya P. 2013. Sustainable Water Service Delivery Project: study findings, Report. </ref><br>Adank et al 2012 (Triple‐S<ref name="Triple"></ref>)		\| Samani et al 2013<ref name="Samani">Samani, Destina and Apolya P. 2013. Sustainable Water Service Delivery Project: study findings, Report. </ref><br>Adank et al 2012 (Triple‐S<ref name="Triple"></ref>)
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Kenya''		\| ''Kenya''
	\| 25%<br>(''main issues'': 14% mechanical failure of handpumps, 11%<br>seasonal yield) A further 45% affected by technical issues		\| 25%<br>(''main issues'': 14% mechanical failure of handpumps, 11%<br>seasonal yield) A further 45% affected by technical issues
	\| Welthungerlife 2011		\| Welthungerlife 2011
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Madagascar''		\| ''Madagascar''
	\| 50%, with 16% not repaired within 1 year<br>(''main issues'': , insufficient yield, mechanical breakdown<br>of handpump)		\| 50%, with 16% not repaired within 1 year<br>(''main issues'': , insufficient yield, mechanical breakdown<br>of handpump)
	\| UNICEF 2014<ref name="UNICEF 2014"></ref>		\| UNICEF 2014<ref name="UNICEF 2014">UNICEF. 2014. Madagascar WASH Sector Sustainability Check, Final Report (draft), pp 72. </ref>
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Mali''		\| ''Mali''
	\| 14–41% (average 34%)		\| 14–41% (average 34%)
	\| Jones 2013		\| Jones 2013
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Malawi''		\| ''Malawi''
	\| 27% supplies abandoned<br>25% remaining supplies have inadequate yield or quality<br>(''main issues: ''borehole construction, poor site selection)		\| 27% supplies abandoned<br>25% remaining supplies have inadequate yield or quality<br>(''main issues: ''borehole construction, poor site selection)
	\| Anscombe 1996<ref name="Anscombe"></ref>		\| Anscombe 1996<ref name="Anscombe"></ref>
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Mozambique''		\| ''Mozambique''
	\| 20%		\| 20%
	\| Jansz 2011<ref name="Jansz"></ref>		\| Jansz 2011<ref name="Jansz"></ref>
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Niger''		\| ''Niger''
	\| 35%		\| 35%
	\| RWSN 2009<ref name="RWSN"></ref>		\| RWSN 2009<ref name="RWSN"></ref>
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Nigeria''		\| ''Nigeria''
	\| 32%<br>(''main issues'': seasonal depletion of water‐table, improper<br>borehole completion, and pump damage)		\| 32%<br>(''main issues'': seasonal depletion of water‐table, improper<br>borehole completion, and pump damage)
	\| Owolabi et al. 1994<ref name="Owolabi"></ref>		\| Owolabi et al. 1994<ref name="Owolabi"></ref>
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Rwanda''		\| ''Rwanda''
	\| 41%<br>(''main issues'': insufficient yield, 50% supplies had<br>mechanical breakdown of handpump at least once per<br>year, 14% inadequate water quality)		\| 41%<br>(''main issues'': insufficient yield, 50% supplies had<br>mechanical breakdown of handpump at least once per<br>year, 14% inadequate water quality)
	\| WHO 2011<ref name="WHO">WHO. 2011. Small‐scale water supplies in the pan‐European region: background, challenges, improvements, WHO report, pp 54. </ref>		\| WHO 2011<ref name="WHO">WHO. 2011. Small‐scale water supplies in the pan‐European region: background, challenges, improvements, WHO report, pp 54. </ref>
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Sierre Leone''		\| ''Sierre Leone''
	\| 31–40%, with additional 17% abandoned<br>(''main issues identified to failure'': seasonal yield,<br>mechanical breakdown of handpump)		\| 31–40%, with additional 17% abandoned<br>(''main issues identified to failure'': seasonal yield,<br>mechanical breakdown of handpump)
	\| MoWR 2012		\| MoWR 2012
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Tanzania''		\| ''Tanzania''
	\| 38%, with additional 7% functioning but in need of repair<br>(''main issues'': seasonal depletion of water‐table,<br>insufficient yield, water quality, mechanical breakdown<br>of handpump)		\| 38%, with additional 7% functioning but in need of repair<br>(''main issues'': seasonal depletion of water‐table,<br>insufficient yield, water quality, mechanical breakdown<br>of handpump)
	\| Taylor et al. 2009<ref name="Taylor"></ref>		\| Taylor et al. 2009<ref name="Taylor"></ref>
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Uganda''		\| ''Uganda''
	\| 16–20% average, up to 33%<br>(''maim issues'': insufficient yield, water quality)<br>56% of functioning handpumps, reported to fail and need<br>repair at least once a year		\| 16–20% average, up to 33%<br>(''maim issues'': insufficient yield, water quality)<br>56% of functioning handpumps, reported to fail and need<br>repair at least once a year

	\| MWE 2013		\| MWE 2013
	\|-		\|-valign="top"
	\| ''Zimbabwe''		\| ''Zimbabwe''
	\| 38%<br>(''main issues'': mechanical failure, typical repair time 3<br>weeks)		\| 38%<br>(''main issues'': mechanical failure, typical repair time 3<br>weeks)