OR/15/028 Aquifer characteristics continued

Ó Dochartaigh, B É, MacDonald, A M, Fitzsimons, V, and Ward, R. 2015. Scotland’s aquifers and groundwater bodies . British Geological Survey Internal Report, OR/15/028.

Old Red Sandstone (Devonian)

File:OR15028 old red sandstone.jpg

Geological summary

Rocks of the Old Red Sandstone sedimentary succession crop out across large parts of north, north-east, central and south-east Scotland. It is a terrestrial red-bed sequence, dating from the late Silurian to the early Carboniferous but dominantly Devonian, formed predominantly of fluvial and alluvial fan sandstones, with variable proportions of conglomerates, siltstones and mudstones. Volcanic rocks, including lavas and volcaniclastic rocks, are significant in parts of the otherwise dominantly sedimentary succession, forming a distinct aquifer type, described in Section 5.6, below.

Old Red Sandstone rocks in Scotland were deposited in two distinct basins: a northern, ‘Orcadian’, basin, including outcrops in Shetland, Orkney, Caithness, Morayshire and Aberdeenshire; and a southern basin including outcrops in Aberdeen; the Vale of Strathmore, from Loch Lomond to Stonehaven; in Fife; and in the Scottish Borders. The maximum total thickness of Old Red Sandstone rocks can exceed 2000 m (Trewin and Thirlwall, 2002).

Physical aquifer properties and groundwater flow

Sandstones form the most productive aquifers within the Old Red Sandstone succession. The youngest sandstones in the sequence are found in Fife, and form some of the most highly productive bedrock aquifers in Scotland. These sandstones are typically well cemented, with relatively low intergranular porosity and permeability (Table 3). Fracture flow dominates ground- water movement (Figure 12), with at least 80 per cent of borehole inflows from fracture flow (Ó Dochartaigh, 2004). Aquifer properties data for these and other Old Red Sandstone aquifers are summarised in Table 9.

Away from Fife, sandstones within the Upper Old Red Sandstone, and older sandstones and conglomerates of the Middle and Lower Old Red Sandstone, generally form moderately, and occasionally highly, productive aquifers (Table 10). In Caithness and Orkney there are extensive fine grained flagstones, within which groundwater flow is concentrated along bedding planes, and which tend to form only moderately productive aquifers at best. Where lower permeability siltstones or mudstones separate sandstone beds, they tend to act as barriers to groundwater flow, except where permeable faults cut through the sequence.

File:OR15028 fig12.jpg

Figure 12 Schematic cross-section of the hydrogeology of Old Red Sandstone aquifers.

Table 10 Summary of available aquifer properties data for Old Red Sandstone sedimentary aquifers.

	Porosity (%)	Hydraulic conductivity (m/d)	Transmissivity (m2/d)	Specific capacity (m3/d/m)	Storativity	Operational yield (m3/d)
Upper Old Red Sandstone (Fife)	20 (7)	0.5 (7)	200–300 (12)	90–175 (13)	~0.002–0.01 (8)	>1000 (34)
Upper Old Red Sandstone (away from Fife); Middle Old Red Sandstone	~10% (16)		150–200 (12)	50–120 (13)	~0.001 (8)	800–1000 (Moray and Aberdeenshire) (19)
Lower Old Red Sandstone (largely Strathmore; some Moray)	~10% (2)	0.01–2 (2)	50–150 (6)	40–100 (23)	~0.0001 (8)	200–400 (Strathmore and Midland Valley) (183)

Ranges of values refer to mean and median values Number of values indicated in brackets

Data from the British Geological Survey

The predominance of fracture flow means groundwater transport can be rapid, and ground- water is generally well mixed in the top 50 m or so, but groundwater residence times of several decades are typical.

5.5.3 Summary of baseline chemistry

The baseline chemistry of groundwater in Old Red Sandstone aquifers in the Moray Basin is described in detail in Ó Dochartaigh et al. (2010). A summary is provided in Table 11. The baseline chemistry of groundwater in Old Red Sandstone aquifers in Fife is described in detail in Ó Dochartaigh et al. (2006), and of Old Red Sandstone aquifers in southern Scotland in MacDonald et al. (2008). A summary is provided in Table 12.

Table 11 Summary of baseline chemistry of Old Red Sandstone North aquifers in the Moray Basin.

Element	Units	'n'a	'n <dl'b	P 0.1	P 0.25	P 0.5	P 0.75	P 0.9
Ca	mg/L	99	0	26.6	47.3	61.6	79.5	99.1
Cl	mg/L	99	0	17.5	26.9	46	72.7	92.6
DO2	mg/L	49	14	NA	NA	1.22	5.59	8.16
Fe	µg/L	91	19	2.1	4	28.8	300	857
HCO3	mg/L	99	1	77	127	193	250	327
K	mg/L	98	1	1.3	1.8	2.6	3.8	5.8
Mg	mg/L	99	0	2.3	3.67	8.1	17.4	23.8
Na	mg/L	99	0	11.7	15.3	25.5	41.2	56.9
NO3 as NO3	mg/L	82	20	NA	0.18	2.92	15.91	27.54
pH		97	0	6.5	6.8	7.2	7.45	7.7
SEC	µS/cm	94	0	240	374	547	708	890
SO4	mg/L	99	0	6.13	10.6	19.6	35.9	54.5

a number of samples

b number below detection limit

Table 12 Summary of baseline chemistry of Old Red Sandstone South aquifers.

Element	Units	'n'a	'n <dl'b	P 0.1	P 0.25	P 0.5	P 0.75	P 0.9
Ca	mg/L	125	0	25.5	38	47.5	60.9	84.3
Cl	mg/L	125	0	13.3	17.6	25.3	43.6	68.4
DO2	mg/L	64	2	1.4	3.2	6.64	8.2	9.02
Fe	µg/L	105	46	2	2	11	44	158
HCO3	mg/L	124	0	89.8	128	162	214	257
K	mg/L	125	1	0.9	1.45	2.1	3.22	5.1
Mg	mg/L	125	0	5.72	9.82	14.4	22.2	34
Na	mg/L	125	0	7.48	11.5	16	25.3	66.3
NO3 as NO3	mg/L	93	3	0.88	5.75	17.68	45.08	78.23
pH		113	0	6.77	7.02	7.41	7.7	7.8
SEC	µS/cm	108	0	296	386	498	610	821
SO4	mg/L	124	0	9.01	13.3	21.2	33.2	60.3

a number of samples

b number below detection limit

5.6 File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image132.jpg name="_TOC_250008"

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image136.gif

5.6.1 Text Box: Contains OS data © Crown Copyright and database rights [2015].Geological summary

Rocks of Silurian and Ordovician (early Palaeozoic) age dominate southern Scotland but are essentially absent from the rest of the country. They comprise mainly turbiditic sandstones (called greywackes) and siltstones, with variable proportions of conglomerates, mudstones, cherts, volcaniclastic rocks and marine lavas. The total sequence is many thousands of metres thick, and reflects varying marine depositional environments associated with an oceanic sub- duction zone. The rocks are divided into structural tracts by major north-east to south-west trending faults. Their northern boundary is marked generally by the Southern Uplands Fault, although smaller outcrops of Ordovician rocks occur to the north of this into the Midland Valley.

5.6.2 Physical aquifer properties and groundwater flow

The dominantly fine-grained, well-cemented nature of the rocks means intergranular permea- bility is generally low. Apart from a sometimes well-developed weathered zone at rockhead, in which intergranular permeability is enhanced, fractures in the rocks are thought to contribute virtually all groundwater storage and flow (Figure 13). There are no transmissivity or hydraulic conductivity data for the aquifer, reflecting the dominance of low yielding, private supply use — the aquifer has never been investigated in detail for public water or large scale industrial supply. Analysis of recorded operational borehole yields suggests that borehole yields are typ- ically low, with an overall median of 0.3 l/s and a mean of 0.6 l/s.

Groundwater flow paths are likely to be controlled by fracture patterns and to be generally relatively shallow, with groundwater appearing to be well mixed in the top 50 metres or so. In general, flow paths are likely to be relatively short and localised, but in some cases there may be connectivity over several kilometres from higher ground to valleys, and groundwater is often resident in the aquifer for several decades (MacDonald et al., 2008).

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image138.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image139.gifText Box: generally less than 150 metresRelatively unimpeded recharge through absent, thin, and/or permeable superficial deposits on hill slopes

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image141.gif

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image142.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image143.gifLEGEND

Thin superficial deposits on hill slopes

Thick superficial deposits infilling valleys

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image144.gifHighly deformed, low permeability rocks (folded & faulted)

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image145.gifShale band

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image146.gifGroundwater flow lines

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image147.gifShallow groundwater flow through near-surface zone of enhanced fracturing/weathering over 1 to 10s of years

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image148.gifOccaional deeper groundwater flow through scarcer fractures at depth over 10s to 100s years

Figure 13 Schematic cross-section of the hydrogeology of Silurian and Ordovician aquifers in Scotland.

5.6.3 Summary of baseline chemistry

The baseline chemistry of groundwater from Silurian and Ordovician aquifers in Scotland is described in detail in MacDonald et al. (2008). A summary is provided in Table 13.

Table 13 Summary of baseline chemistry data for Silurian and Ordovician aquifers.

Element	Units	'n'a	'n <dl'b	P 0.1	P 0.25	P 0.5	P 0.75	P 0.9
Ca	mg/L	73	0	10	19.7	39.1	54.6	70
Cl	mg/L	72	0	7.05	10.5	14.4	28.7	49.6
DO2	mg/L	48	1	0.14	1.5	3.68	5.1	8.1
Fe	µg/L	66	27	7.5	7.5	13	41	419
HCO3	mg/L	73	1	13	56.7	134	207	273
K	mg/L	72	2	0.5	0.86	1.2	2.27	3.4
Mg	mg/L	73	0	2.64	5.66	12.5	17.9	25.1
Na	mg/L	73	0	5.45	7.4	10.5	15.7	23.9
NO3 as NO3	mg/L	70	1	0.51	1.54	11.09	21.30	43.93
pH		72	0	6.04	6.7	7.09	7.48	7.76
SEC	µS/cm	73	0	116	190	340	536	655
SO4	mg/L	73	0	0.71	5.45	9.38	14.7	28.3

a number of samples

b number below detection limit

5.7 File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image149.jpgHIGHLAND CALCAREOUS: DOMINANTLY CALCAREOUS PRECAMBRIAN AND CAMBRO-ORDOVICIAN

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image150.jpg

5.7.1 Text Box: Contains OS data © Crown Copyright and database rights [2015].Geological summary

Most rocks in Scotland are dominantly siliceous, but a few, mostly Precambrian and Cam- bro-Ordovician in age and in the Highlands, are dominantly calcareous, which has significant impacts on the chemistry of groundwater stored in and flowing through the rocks. Calcareous rocks occur within the Appin, Argyll and Southern Highland Groups of the Dalradian Super- group (within the Precambrian South aquifer group), and include calcareous pelites, calcsili- cates, and metalimestones (Strachan et al., 2002). The calcareous horizons are often relatively thin — sometimes only a few metres thick— and are interbedded with greater thicknesses of other, noncalcareous metamorphic rocks.

The younger Durness Group, of Cambro-Ordovician age, is a dominantly carbonate sequence which crops out along a narrow belt some 250 km long just inland from the north-west coast. It can be seen as a moderate productivity, fracture flow aquifer in this area in Figure 3. It is usually no more than a few hundred metres thick, although reaches 1300 m at its thickest (Robins, 1990). Only part of the group is dominated by the limestones in this aquifer group; the rest is dominated by dolostones with intervals of subordinate chert (Park et al., 2002).

5.7.2 Physical aquifer properties and groundwater flow

Calcareous Precambrian rocks have low intergranular porosity and permeability, but dissolu- tion of carbonate along fractures in the rock can produce secondary karstic permeability (Fig- ure 14). Where karstic permeability becomes very well developed, these rocks can have higher transmissivity than noncalcareous Precambrian aquifers (Robins, 1990).

Cambro-Ordovician limestones show significant karst development in places, thought to be concentrated along fault planes, and including cave sequences at least 3 km long, through

which large flows of up to 00 l/s discharge (Robins, 1990). However, the scarce available data indicate that where karst is poorly developed, the aquifer has relatively low productivity, sim- ilar to Precambrian aquifers (Section 5.8).

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image153.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image154.gifRecharge where superficial cover is absent, thin and/or permeable.

Focused recharge through swallow holes

Minor spring fed by fracture system

Text Box: generally up to 500 metresMajor spring fed 2

by karstic system

1

River

Text Box: Highly calcareous rock with major karst development Text Box: Less calcareous rock with fracture development but no major karst File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image158.gif

LEGEND

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image159.gifThin, often permeable superficial deposits on hill slopes

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image160.gifCalcareous rock

Groundwater flow lines

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image161.gifRapid groundwater flow often over months rather than years Groundwater flow over 1 to 10s years

Figure 14 Schematic cross-section of the hydrogeology of calcareous aquifers (dominantly Precambrian and Cambrian) in Scotland.

5.7.3 Summary of baseline chemistry

A summary of the baseline chemistry of groundwater in Highland Calcareous aquifers is pro- vided in Table 14.

Table 14 Summary of baseline chemistry of Highland Calcareous aquifers.

Element	Units	'n'a	'n <dl'b	P 0.1	P 0.25	P 0.5	P 0.75	P 0.9
Ca	mg/L	18	0	12.5	25	62.8	78.1	121
Cl	mg/L	18	0	6.27	10.5	16.2	29.8	38.1
DO2	mg/L	18	0	3.59	5.56	7.86	9.28	10.5
Fe	µg/L	18	3	1	2	10	69	271
HCO3	mg/L	18	0	46.4	54.3	194	344	377
K	mg/L	18	0	0.877	1.02	2.35	3.48	4.4
Mg	mg/L	18	0	2.89	3.51	4.8	10.4	28.4
Na	mg/L	18	0	4.47	6.88	8.8	14.4	23.2
NO3 as NO3	mg/L	18	0	0.93	1.51	6.90	26.56	83.98
pH		18	0	6.46	6.7	7.2	7.42	7.72
SEC	µS/cm	18	0	86.1	279	471	576	656

a number of samples

b number below detection limit

5.8 File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image167.gif name="_TOC_250007"

Text Box: Contains OS data © Crown Copyright and database rights [2015].Precambrian' 'North

Groundwater flow type Aquifer productivity Groundwater

flow path length Groundwater flow depth Groundwater age

Baseline groundwater chemistry

'

Fracture

Very Low to Low

0.1–1 km; usually follows local surface water catchment

Tens of metres Years to decades

Variable redox conditions, weakly mineralised, Ca-(Na) HCO3 (Cl)

Overlying strata Thin, low-moderately permeable

on hillslopes; thicker and permeable in valleys

5.8.1 Geological summary

Precambrian rocks cover most of Scotland north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, geologically divided into a number of tectonostratigraphical terranes divided by major faults. From a hydrogeological point of view they can be divided into a northern and a southern di- vision. They are divided here into Precambrian North and Precambrian South.

Precambrian North aquifers are typified by massive metamorphic rocks, including highly metamorphosed Lewisian gneiss, largely unmetamorphosed Torridonian sandstone, metamor- phosed Moine schists, and Dalradian Grampian Group schists.

Precambrian South aquifers are typified by Dalradian metasedimentary schists of the South- ern Highland and Argyll groups, which are typically more layered and less massive than Pre- cambrian north aquifers.

Both Precambrian aquifer groups are variously intruded by igneous rocks.

5.8.2 Physical aquifer properties and groundwater flow

Scottish Precambrian rocks, both North and South, typically form low or very low productivity aquifers, with negligible intergranular porosity (less than 1 per cent— Robins, 1990) and low permeability. Weathering of the uppermost few metres of rock, often most pronounced in areas of intensive fracturing, can create enhanced intergranular permeability, but in general groundwater flow and storage is entirely within fractures (Figure 15). These fractures are generally more common at depths of up to approximately 100 m. Often a single fracture, or at most three or four fractures, provide all of the inflow to a borehole, with individual fracture flows up to approximately 0.3 l/s, although typically lower than this.

Very little quantitative aquifer properties data are available for Precambrian aquifers in Scot- land. For the Precambrian North, scarce records of operational borehole yields indicate that the largely unmetamorphosed Torridonian sandstone typically has the highest yields, trans- missivity and specific capacity of the different Precambrian geological units (Table 15).

In parts of Aberdeenshire, the rare preservation of deep Tertiary weathering products— unlike in the rest of Scotland, where glacial erosion removed most pre-Quaternary weathering de- bris — has left tens of metres thickness of moderately to highly weathered Precambrian met- amorphic, and in some cases intrusive igneous, rock, with enhanced permeability. This special case is treated as a form of regolith — weathered, or superficial, aquifer — and is discussed in Section 5.12.

Table 15 Summary of available aquifer properties data for Precambrian aquifers.

		Transmissivity (m'2'/d)	Specific capacity (m'3'/d/m)	Operational yield (m'3'/d)
Precambrian North	Lewisian	0.2-1.3 median 0.2 (3)	0.3–0.7 median 0.49 (4)	5–11 median 10.5 (4)
	Torridonian	13–37 median 16 (3)	2.7 – 64 median 8 (5)	60–135 median 86 (5)
	Moine	0.2 (1)	0.7 – 1.8 (2)	23–328 median 38 (4)
Precambrian South	Dalradian	1.4 (1)	0.3 – 1.3 median 0.8 (2)	0–864 median 51 (88)

Ranges refer to total range in values Number of values indicated in brackets Data from the British Geological Survey

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image171.gif

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image172.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image173.gifText Box: generally less than 150 metresLEGEND

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image175.gifThin superficial deposits on hill slopes Thick superficial deposits infilling valleys

Groundwater flow lines

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image176.gifGroundwater level (water table)

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image178.gifPsammites Pelites

Metasedimentary rocks: minor groundwater flow through isolated fracture zones. Pelites often more fractured than Psammites

Steep sided valleys infilled with permeable glacial deposits

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image179.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image180.gifSmall amounts of shallow groundwater flow through

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image181.gifMassive metamorphic rocks (eg gneiss)

Groundwater flow focused in zones of intensive fracturing (often below faulted valleys or along intruded sills or dykes)

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image182.gifIntruded sill or dyke

weathered near-surface zone over 1 to 10s years

	File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image183.gif

Figure 15 Schematic cross-section of the hydrogeology of Precambrian aquifers in Scotland.

5.8.3 Summary of baseline chemistry

A summary of the baseline chemistry of groundwater in Precambrian North aquifers is provid- ed in Table 16. The baseline chemistry of groundwater in Precambrian South aquifers in Ab- erdeenshire is described in detail in Smedley et al. (2009). A summary is provided in Table 17.

Table 16 Summary of baseline chemistry of Precambrian North aquifers.

Element	Units	'n'a	'n <dl'b	P 0.1	P 0.25	P 0.5	P 0.75	P 0.9
Ca	mg/L	41	0	9	13.3	20.9	34	64.6
Cl	mg/L	41	0	10.1	14	22	37	67.1
DO2	mg/L	23	0	0.114	0.34	2.06	6.12	9.11
Fe	µg/L	40	1	2	9	41	208	1100
HCO3	mg/L	41	0	27	46.9	72	116	221
K	mg/L	41	0	0.95	1.33	1.91	2.6	4.1
Mg	mg/L	41	0	1.18	2.1	3.73	5.9	7
Na	mg/L	41	0	7.4	11.3	18	29	35
NO3 as NO3	mg/L	38	4	0.15	0.18	1.25	9.90	17.46
pH		38	0	6.07	6.27	6.68	7.28	8.09
SEC	µS/cm	33	0	110	161	227	317	544
SO4	mg/L	41	0	2.27	4.54	7.67	10.5	12

a number of samples

b number below detection limit

Table 17 Summary of baseline chemistry of Precambrian South aquifers.

Element	Units	'n'a	'n < dl'b	P 0.1	P 0.25	P 0.5	P 0.75	P 0.9
Ca	mg/L	39	0	6.4	10.8	17.4	28	44.3
Cl	mg/L	39	0	3.76	4.73	15.4	30.1	39.3
DO2	mg/L	32	2	1.09	3.32	5	7.76	9.78
Fe	µg/L	39	5	5	10	35	120	508
HCO3	mg/L	38	0	10.8	18.2	37	108	155
K	mg/L	39	0	0.7	1.04	1.51	2.45	3.34
Mg	mg/L	39	0	1.2	2.41	4.53	7.72	11
Na	mg/L	39	0	3.06	5.51	13.7	22.6	28.9
NO3 as NO3	mg/L	34	2	0.18	1.99	7.96	26.70	45.08
pH		39	0	5.71	6.06	6.65	7.54	8.13
SEC	µS/cm	37	0	83.5	149	241	330	449
SO4	mg/L	39	0	4.53	5.86	10.9	15.9	25

a number of samples

b number below detection limit

5.9 File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image184.jpg name="_TOC_250006"

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image185.jpg

5.9.1 Text Box: Contains OS data © Crown Copyright and database rights [2015].Geological summary

There are innumerable outcrops of volcanic rocks across Scotland, from all time periods in the Phanerozoic. They were dominantly formed as lava flows that range from a few centimetres to many kilometres in size. Three periods in particular saw large volumes of volcanic lavas extruded: the Devonian (within the Old Red Sandstone sequence), Carboniferous and Tertia- ry. Volcaniclastic and, rarely, pyroclastic deposits are sometimes interlayered with the lavas; weathered layers and palaeosols within the sequence are also common.

5.9.2 Physical aquifer properties and groundwater flow

Volcanic rocks in Scotland typically form low productivity aquifers. In their unweathered state they have negligible intergranular porosity and permeability. The main controls on aquifer permeability are the degree and nature of rock fracturing, and the degree of weathering along junctions between individual lava flows (Figure 16). Highly weathered zones can have rela- tively highintergranular permeability, transmitting significant amounts of groundwater. Frac- tures in the intervening more massive rock can connect these zones and increase the overall productivity of the aquifer. Water bearing fractures are generally more common in the near surface, and are thought to become less common with depth: fracture inflows to boreholes at depths of more than 100 m do occur, but are rare.

The fractured and therefore heterogeneous nature of volcanic rock aquifers means there is a wide range in recorded borehole yields. Recorded yields range from <1 m3/d to >1300 m3/d, based on a total of 93 recorded values, with a mean of 145 m3/d and a median of 50 m3/d. The lowest recorded yields are from Devonian lavas (median 17 m3/d) and the highest from Tertiary (median 65 m3/d) and Carboniferous (median 57 m3/d) lavas. Specific capacity values for all volcanic rocks range from less than 1 to nearly 400 m3/d/m, with a median of 5 m3/d/m, based on a total of 17 values.

There are several notable abstractions for mineral water from Scottish volcanic rocks, and the aquifer is also used locally for private water supply. A number of springs from Tertiary lavas in the Highlands, particularly on Skye, are used for public water supply.

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image187.gifRecharge through absent, thin and/or permeable superficial deposits

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image192.gif

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image194.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image195.gifText Box: generally less than 200 metres

LEGEND

'

Volcanic rock/lava flows

Highly fractured/weathered zones

Thick superficial deposits infilling valleys Groundwater flow lines

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image197.gifGroundwater flow dominantly through highly fractured/weathered zones at the junctions of lava flows

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image198.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image199.gifSmall amounts of groundwater flow in near-surface fractured/weathered zone over months to 10s of years

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image200.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image201.gif Groundwater level (water table)

Spring discharging where fracture zone meets the ground surface

Figure 16 Schematic cross-section of the hydrogeology of volcanic igneous aquifers in Scotland.

5.9.3 Summary of baseline chemistry

A summary of the baseline chemistry of groundwater in Igneous Volcanic aquifers is provided in Table 18.

Table 18 Summary of baseline chemistry data for igneous volcanic aquifers.

Element	Units	'n'a	'n <dl'b	P 0.1	P 0.25	P 0.5	P 0.75	P 0.9
Ca	mg/L	43	0	14.4	22.8	42.2	69	116
Cl	mg/L	43	0	7.59	10.2	22	44.1	77.7
DO2	mg/L	24	1	1.48	2.31	5.46	6.9	9.17
Fe	µg/L	39	3	4	5	26	92	300
HCO3	mg/L	43	0	55.7	94	158	211	245
K	mg/L	43	2	0.51	0.71	1.1	2.18	6.9
Mg	mg/L	42	0	2.31	7.57	11.5	19.3	36
Na	mg/L	43	0	9.17	12	22.5	38.1	83.4
NO3 as NO3	mg/L	35	0	0.72	1.69	16.00	54.81	141.44
pH		37	0	6.62	6.94	7.3	7.71	8.14
SEC	µS/cm	37	0	178	254	383	605	704

a number of samples

b number below detection limit

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5.10.1 Text Box: Contains OS data © Crown Copyright and database rights [2015].Geological summary

There are many major and innumerable minor igneous intrusions across Scotland, ranging from linear dykes a few millimetres wide to granitic batholiths many kilometres across. They date from all time periods in the Phanerozoic, but certain eras saw major periods of igneous activity, in particular the Devonian and Carboniferous.

5.10.2 Physical aquifer properties and groundwater flow

Intrusive igneous rocks typically form low or very low productivity aquifers. In their unweath- ered state, primary intergranular porosity and permeability are negligible, and groundwater flow and storage occurs entirely in fractures (Figure 17). In near-surface zones where the rocks are weathered, particularly for granitic rocks, intergranular permeability can be enhanced. Across most of Scotland, glacial erosion has removed most pre-Quaternary weathering, and these zones are rarely more than few metres thick, but in parts of Aberdeenshire and the Cairngorms, many metres, sometimes tens of metres, of weathered intrusive igneous rocks have been preserved. This special case is treated as a form of regolith— weathered, or superfi- cial, aquifer — and is discussed in Section 5.12.

Few good quantitative aquifer properties data are available. The range in recorded opera- tional yields from all intrusive igneous rocks, based on 47 recorded values, is from <1 m3/d to 600 m3/d, with a mean of 110 m3/d and a median of 44 m3/d.

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image208.gifUnrestricted recharge through absent, thin and/or permeable superficial deposits

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image209.gif1

Text Box: generally less than 100 metresDEEP WEATHERING OFTEN TO GRAVEL

ZONE OF WELL DEVELOPED

2 FRACTURING

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image211.gifUNWEATHERED ROCK

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image213.gif

LEGEND

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image214.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image215.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image216.gifThin superficial deposits Highly weathered rock Base rock

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image217.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image218.gifGroundwater flow lines Groundwater level (water table)

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image219.gifShallow groundwater flow through highly weathered near-surface zone over 1 to10s years

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image220.gifDeeper groundwater flow path through fractured zone over 10s years

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image221.gifSmall groundwater flows in shallow weathered zone a few metres thick at most

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image222.gifIntruded sills or dykes can increase local permeability and allow (usually small) groundwater flows to deeper levels

Figure 17 Schematic cross-sections of the hydrogeology of intrusive igneous aquifers in Scotland.

5.10.3 Summary of baseline chemistry

The baseline chemistry of groundwater in igneous intrusive aquifers in Aberdeenshire is described in Smedley et al. (2009). A summary is provided in Table 19.

Table 19 Summary of baseline chemistry data for igneous intrusive aquifers.

Element	Units	'n'a	'n <dl'b	P 0.1	P 0.25	P 0.5	P 0.75	P 0.9
Ca	mg/L	34	0	3.93	10.9	20	33.9	45.2
Cl	mg/L	34	0	7.4	13.5	25	41.4	68.1
DO2	mg/L	23	0	3.26	4.55	7.6	8.39	9.7
Fe	µg/L	34	15	NA	NA	16	100	250
HCO3	mg/L	34	1	8	17.1	37	106	204
K	mg/L	34	2	0.4	1.02	1.4	2.84	4.19
Mg	mg/L	33	0	1.08	3.6	6.69	9.29	13.1
Na	mg/L	34	0	5.21	10.5	16.5	24.7	37.6
NO3 as NO3	mg/L	31	3	0.04	0.75	13.30	54.81	64.09
pH		33	0	5.69	6.19	6.63	7.04	7.32
SEC	µS/cm	29	0	63.5	168	271	334	430
SO4	mg/L	34	0	1.03	7.25	11.8	18	22.3

a number of samples

b number below detection limit

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5.11.1 Text Box: Contains OS data © Crown Copyright and database rights [2015].Geological summary

In some parts of Scotland, particularly within Carboniferous and Old Red Sandstone rocks, there are thick sequences— often many hundreds of metres in total— of interbedded sedi- mentary and igneous volcanic rocks. The individual volcanic or sedimentary rock layers are no different from those described in other relevant sections here (e.g. Sections 5.3, 5.5 and 5.9), but the combined sequence can behave differently as an aquifer.

5.11.2 Physical aquifer properties and groundwater flow

The individual properties of the sedimentary and volcanic layers are generally the same as for the relevant rock where it occurs separately, but as a whole sequence there are differences. Sandstone beds tend to have the highest permeability and storage, with fracture and inter- granular permeability throughout them, and can therefore contain larger volumes of ground- water than volcanic layers. However, groundwater flow that does occur through volcanic rocks can be faster, restricted to narrow, highly weathered zones (Figure 18).

Relatively unimpeded recharge through absent, thin and/or permeable superficial deposits on hillslopes

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image226.gif

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image242.gif

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image246.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image247.gifText Box: generally up to 300 metresLEGEND

Thin superficial deposits on hill slopes Thick superficial deposits infilling valleys Sandstone

Conglomerate

Volcanic rock with highly weathered /fractured zones

File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image249.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image250.gifFile:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image251.gifGroundwater flow lines Spring

Shallow groundwater flow over 1 to 10s years Deeper groundwater flow over 10s to 100s years

	File:C:\Users\dbk\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip image252.gif

Figure 18 Schematic cross-section of the hydrogeology of mixed igneous–sedimentary aquifers in Scotland.

5.11.3 Summary of baseline chemistry

The chemistry of groundwater in this aquifer depends on the local proportion of sedimentary and igneous rocks. For the range of expected chemical parameters see the relevant sections: Section 5.9 for Igneous Volcanic aquifers; Section 5.3 for Carboniferous sedimentary aquifers not extensively mined for coal; Section 5.5 for Old Red Sandstone sedimentary aquifers and, where relevant, Section 5.1 for Permo-Triassic sedimentary aquifers.

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Text Box: Contains OS data © Crown Copyright and database rights [2015].Some of the most productive aquifers in Scotland are formed of superficial deposits. However, superficial aquifers vary widely in productivity, due to their highly variable lithology, deposi- tional history and therefore parameters such as sediment sorting, and also, importantly, 3D geometry (the lateral extent and thickness of the deposit). The thickest superficial aquifers in Scotland exceed 80m, where thick sequences of gravels and sands infill deep valleys eroded by glaciers from bedrock. Superficial aquifers have been divided into three categories accord- ing to their age, provenance and whether they crop out at the ground surface or are hidden, described in more detail in Section 3.2: Quaternary deposits mapped at the surface; buried aquifers; and deeply weathered bedrock (regolith).

5.12.1 Quaternary aquifers that crop out at the ground surface

The distribution and productivity of Quaternary aquifers that crop out at the ground surface is shown in the map above. The dominant control on aquifer properties is the mode of sediment deposition, which determines the grain size, sediment sorting and density, which in turn con- trol permeability (MacDonald et al., 2012). The 3D geometry of the aquifers is also a key control on the hydrogeology: the thickness and extent of Quaternary deposits can be highly variable, which means that aquifers do not persist over large areas. The highest productivity aqui- fers are usually glaciofluvial deposits; alluvium typically forms moderate to highly productive aquifers; and coastal deposits of various kinds typically form low to moderate productivity aquifers. Key characteristics of each of these are summarised in Table 20.

Table' '20 Summary of key features of the main Quaternary aquifer types (Boulton et al., 2002).

Aquifer type	Key features
Glaciofluvial deposits	Deposited by glacial meltwater rivers towards the end of the last glacial period. Widespread in occurrence, commonly infilling deeply eroded bedrock valleys, to more than 80 m deep (e.g. in the lower Spey valley), or forming broad outwash spreads across many kilometres (e.g. along the Moray coast, around Forfar in Angus, and in the Nith valley north of Dumfries). Dominated by gravel and sand but can have variable composition. Gravel channels can be very thick and highly permeable; but can be interbedded with finer grained, lower permeability deposits.
Alluvial deposits	Deposited by rivers since the end of the last glacial period, forming floodplains Typically mixed sequences with interbedded silt, clay, sand and gravel. Often overlie glaciofluvial deposits. Groundwater flows naturally towards rivers; groundwater is often in hydraulic contact with river.
Raised marine deposits	Deposited by marine action around the end of the last glacial period, when sea levels were higher. Variable composition, from coarse shingle to thick clay. Gravel beds tend to be thin and irregular, but highly permeable. Often thick clay beds. Low lying and shallow water table.
Blown sand	Typically forming sand dunes along coasts. Well-sorted sand, which can be moderately to highly permeable, but can be thin and laterally restricted

5.12.2 Buried Quaternary aquifers

Buried Quaternary aquifers are those that do not crop out at the ground surface, but are over- lain by nonaquifer deposits such as clays and silts. The locations of significant buried Quater- nary aquifers are shown in Figure 6. They are all dominantly formed of glaciofluvial deposits, laid down by glacial meltwater rivers in deep, pre-existing eroded bedrock valleys towards the end of the last glacial period (Table 19). Little exploration of the deposits has been done, but they are known to exceed 80 m thickness in places. They may form significant local aquifers, with large volumes of groundwater storage and flows.

5.12.3 Weathered bedrock aquifers

Significant weathered bedrock aquifers occur in lowland parts of north-east Scotland (Figure 6). The deep weathering, of both intrusive igneous (granitic) and Precambrian South rocks is thought to have occurred under the humid temperate environments of the Pliocene and warmer periods of the Pleistocene. It is common in some parts of north-eastScotland to find extensive areas with few, if any, unweathered rock outcrops. The depth of weathering commonly extends to between name="OLE_LINK4"10 and 20 m, and can exceed 50 m. Significant variation in weathering thickness occurs laterally (Merritt et al., 2003). Weathered rock has often been wrongly identified as superficial deposits in borehole logs, and its true extent may be much greater than is shown on this map.

The regolith — weathered rocks — varies widely in grain size, geochemistry and clay miner- alogy, controlled largely by parent rock type and the degree of chemical alteration during

weathering. Two distinct types are identified. The most common is dominantly sandy, with limited fine-grained material. Clay mineralogy is closely controlled by rock type, with granitic saprolites containing kaolinite-mica mineral assemblages, basic igneous saprolites containing a wide range of clay minerals, acid metamorphic rocks containing kaolinite and mica clays, and metalimestones dominated by smectite. Less common is a more evolved saprolite that has elevated clay content (more than 6 per cent) with clay mineralogy dominated by kaolinite and haematite (Merritt et al., 2003).

The regolith has significantly higher permeability and storage than the unweathered parent bedrock. Although few systematic hydrogeological studies have been done, the aquifer sup- ports many private water supplies in Aberdeenshire.

5.12.4 Baseline chemistry of superficial aquifers

Fewer data are available on the chemistry of groundwater from superficial aquifers in Scot- land, as the Baseline Scotland project collected data only on bedrock aquifers. However, a total of 111 samples of groundwater from Quaternary aquifers have been collected by BGS and analysed at BGS laboratories since 1984. These data have been subject to preliminary quality assurance, and the results have been interpreted to characterise key chemical parameters of groundwater from superficial aquifers across Scotland (Table 21). Threshold values were calcu- lated using the 5th and 95th percentile of the dataset, and the median is also quoted.

Superficial aquifers are highly heterogeneous lithologically, in their size and distribution across Scotland, and the baseline chemistry of groundwater in the aquifers is also highly variable. These summarised results are therefore only a general description of the chemistry of ground- water in Scotland’s superficial aquifers, but do provide threshold values within which most superficial groundwater is likely to fall.

Table 21 Summary chemistry data for all superficial aquifers in Scotland. Data from the Baseline Scotland project.

Parameter	'n'a	P 0.05	P 0.5	P 0.95
Ca mg/L	106	6.4	35.1	77.5
Cl mg/L	98	8.5	27.4	120.2
K mg/L	97	0.3	2.23	4.29
Mg mg/L	63	1.6	4.2	20.45
Na mg/L	95	6.19	14.5	71.7
NO3 as NO3 mg/L	61	0.44	9.68	70.4
SO4 mg/L	61	2.4	13.8	140
HCO3 mg/L	109	10.4	76.9	210.6
Fe mg/L	47	0.005	0.04	0.31
Mn mg/L	47	0.001	0.04	0.36
SEC uS/cm	107	105	316	737
Dissolved oxygen mg/L	62	0.4	4.8	11.3
pH	106	5.8	6.71	7.74
Temperature oC	98	7.38	9.95	12.1
Eh mV	69	12.2	296	458

a number of samples above detection limit